1、胡壮麟语言学教程笔记第56章胡壮麟语言学教程笔记第5-6章言实体之间的关系。在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of ob
2、jects in peoples mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the t
3、hing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram。The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and
4、referent is made possible only through “concept.”Concept / notion（概念）Thought / reference -Symbol object Word stands for reality Signifier referent Code（词语） signified（事物）5. Sense relations （涵义关系） SynonymySynonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. Antonymy（反义关系）Antonymy is the name for
5、oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.（反义关系是对立关系的专业术语，它包括三个此类： 等级反义关系，互补反义关系和反向反义关系。）. Gradable antonymy（等级反义关系）Gradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives, . good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc. Comp
6、lementary antonymy（互补反义关系）The members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, but the denial of one also means the assertion of the other, . ali
7、ve / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.(跟第一种反义关系相反，这种反义词的成员彼此互补。也就是说它们吧一个语义领域完全切分成两半。不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。). Converse antonymy（反向反义关系）Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not const
8、itute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, . buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc.（这是反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为其中的成员并不构成肯定或者否定的对立，而只表现两实体间的一种反向关系。这种反义关系典型地表现在两两相对的角色、亲属关系、时间和空间关系等方面；在这种意义上，它叫关系对立。） Hyponymy (上下义关系)Hyponymy is meaning inclusiven
9、ess or a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. （上下义关系是指意义内包关系或者说一种类与成员间的关系。位于这种意义关系上位的词语叫上坐标词； 位于下位的是成员，叫下义词。）Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are called co-hyponyms, . under fl
10、ower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.（同下义词） Homonymy (同音/同形异义关系)Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meani
11、ngs have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (同音/同形异义关系是指不同意义的词具有相同的形式这一种现象，即不同的词发音或者拼写相同，或者发音和拼写都相同。)When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. (同音异义词)When two words are identical in spelling, they are called homographs.(同形异义词) Wh
12、en two words are identical both in sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.(完全同音同形词). Entailment (蕴含)If that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second one. (如果知道一个句子的真假能够判断另一个句子的真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。)I
13、n terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between the two sentences if a entails b:When a is true, b is necessarily true; (a真 b真)When b is false, a is false; (b假 a假)When a is false, b may be true or false; (a假 b或真或假)When b is true, a may be true. (b真 a或真或假). Presupposition (预设)The sp
14、eaker or writer always assumes that the hearer or reader already knows something of what he is going to say or write. This “something” often becomes the presupposition of a sentence. In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between two sentences:When a is true, b is necessarily tru
15、e; (a真 b一定真)When a is false, b is still true; (a假 b仍为真)When b is true, a can either be true or false; (b真 a或真或假)When b is false, no truth value can be said about. (b假，无真值可言)6. Componential analysis (成分分析法) Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components
16、. That is, the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. (成分分析法用语义成分来定义词汇，也就是说，一个词可以被分成语义特征。)Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of word. There are semantic units smaller than the
17、 meaning of a word. . Boy: +human-adult+male Girl: +human-adult-male Son: child (x, y) & male (x) Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x) Take: cause (x, (have (x, y) Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind1. Psycholinguistics (心理语言学). cognition(认知) It refers to the mental proc
18、ess of an individual, with particular relationship to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states(such as beliefs, desires and intentions(认知是指个人的心理过程，即心智具有内部心理状态（如信念、意志和意愿）) It is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning
19、 and judgment. (认知是指心理过程或知识的能力，包括意识、知觉、推理和判断等。). Psycholinguistics (心理语言学)Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it mainly studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely un
20、conscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences. Psycholinguistics investigate the relationship between language and thought, and they are also concerned with how languages are learned, and the roles they play in our thinking. 心理语言学是对语言心理方面的研究，通
21、常研究的是与语言行为相关的心理状态和思维活动。心理语言学的一个重点是研究能够使人理解和产生可理解句子的语法规则的无意识运用。心理语言学家研究语言与思维的关系，心理语言学同时也还关注语言是如何习得的以及语言在思维运用中所发挥的作用。Psycholinguistics is a branch of linguistics which is the study of psychological aspects of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field, it investigates the following subjects: acq
22、uisition, comprehension and production.2. Categorization(范畴化)Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories: the basic level, the superordinate level and the subordinate level.范畴化是人类基于经验的异同对经验进行分类的过程；范畴划分为三个层次：基本层次范畴、上位层次范畴、下属层次范畴
