1、Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.3Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic si
2、gns bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3CreativityCrea
3、tivity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4Di
4、splacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.加1 Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.加2 Iconicity拟象性: the direct/non-arbitrary/non-
5、symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between la
6、nguage form and what they refer to.1.5Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1.Referential: to convey message and information;2.Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3.Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4.Conative: to persuade and infl
7、uence others through commands and entreaties;5.Phatic: to establish communion with others;6.Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1.Ideational function: to convey new info
8、rmation, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2.Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3.Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coher
9、ent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2I
10、nterpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the bl
11、essing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5Phatic
12、 communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6Recreational functionThe recreational function means people
13、 use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to
14、 talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7Main branches of linguistics1.7.1PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes
15、three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes an
16、d word-formation processes.1.7.4SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. 1.7.5SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of m
17、eaning in context.1.8Macrolinguistics1.8.1Psycholinguistics1.8.2Sociolinguistics1.8.3Anthropological linguistics1.8.4Computational linguistics1.9Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to
18、 discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all
19、.For example, “Dont say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguist
20、ics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is
21、the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priori
22、ty over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the a
23、ctual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is
24、to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic comp
25、etence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influen
26、ced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures l
27、angue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues
28、psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be
29、one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigators ingenuity or intuition alone.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:
30、1.Articulatory phonetics the study of the production of speech sounds2.Acoustic phonetics the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3.Auditory phonetics the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.3Segments, divergen
31、ces, and phonetic transcription2.3.2Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consist of letters and diacritics. Som
32、e letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4Consonants2.4.3Manners of articulation1.Stop/plosive: 2.Fricative: 3.(Median) approximant: 4.Lateral (approximant): 2.4.4Places of articulation1.Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2.Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.
