语言学Application of Conversational Implications.docx
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语言学Application of Conversational Implications.docx
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语言学ApplicationofConversationalImplications
ApplicationofConversational
ImplicationsinEnglishAudio-visualCourse
1.Introduction
Nowadays,itisgraduallyemphasizedthatweshouldfosterEnglishmajorstudentswithintegratedskills.Asaresult,considerableattentionhasbeendevotedtoEnglishaudio-visualcourse.However,theteachingeffectofthiscoursehasbeenunsatisfactory,whichhasledtoacentralquestioninresearchabouthowtoimprovestudents’listeningcomprehensionbywatchingEnglishmovies.Inthepasttwentyyears,thisquestionhasbeenthefocusofmanystudies,forexample,YanCanxun(2005:
56)proposesateachingmethodthatoralEnglishpracticesubstitutesforlisteningtraininginlisteningclasseswhilestudentslearnautonomouslyafterclass;whileGuoSuihong(2004:
45)advocatesteachingratherthantesting,payingmoreattentiontoauthenticinputandbasingonthelearner-centeredapproach,sothatstudents’listeningcomprehensioncanbedeveloped;andrecently,LuGuojunandWuXingdong(2007:
25)focusonthestructureinferencesandtheroleofdiscourseintonationinlistening,andtrytoimprovethestudents’listeningcomprehensionbyreadingandintonationtraining.
Theresearchesabovearemeaningfulinsomeways,butonethingtheyoftenignoreistheimportanceofcomprehension.AccordingtoKeithJohnson(2002:
254),therearestrangephenomenaintextcomprehension.Sometimesitispossibletounderstandeverywordofatextandstillnotknowwhatitisabout,andsometimesitispossibletounderstandamessageevenwhenthereisnoevidenceforyourinterpretationoftheactualwordsonthepages.ThatisjustthecaseinEnglishaudio-visualcourse.Nomatterhowgoodone’slisteningskillmaybe,hecannevermakethoroughandauthenticcomprehensionifhejuststopsattheliteralmeaning.Thispapermakesanattempttousetheconversationalimplicature,proposedbyPaulGrice,toanalyzetheconversationsinEnglishmovies,andgettherealandcorrectunderstandingoftheseseeminglystrangeconversations.Forexample:
(1)Doctor:
Ineedtogiveyouananesthesia.
Teddy:
DoIlookreallythatstupid?
Doctor:
Icannotdoanoperationlikethiswithoutananesthesia.
(FromPrisonBreak)
Judgingtheconversationabovefromitsliteralmeaning,Teddy’sanswerdidnotshowanysignofrejectionoracceptanceofananesthesia.Itseemsthathemadehisreplytotallyunrelatedtothedoctor’swords.Butifwemakealittleanalysisofit,itisveryeasyforustounderstandthatheactuallyrefusedthedoctor.Hiswayofansweringisanindirectwayofrefusalwithmuchstrongerforce.
HowdoesthereplyofTeddymean“Iknowthatyouwanttomakemeunconsciousbygivingmeananesthesia.Andyou’dbetterstopyourplanbecauseI’mnotafool.”?
Andhowdoesthedoctorunderstand,throughtheliteralmeaning,whatTeddyindicates?
Theconversationalimplicaturetheorycangiveusconvincingexplanations.TheaboveconversationsfrequentlyappearinEnglishmovies.Ifteachersdonotemploythetheorytoexplainthem,studentsmayoftenfailtounderstandthem.
2.CooperativePrincipleandconversationalimplications
2.1CooperativePrinciple
Itisknownthatquiteoftenaspeakercanmeanalotmorethanwhatissaid.Theproblemistoexplainhowthespeakercanmanagetoconveymorethanwhatissaidandhowthehearercanarriveatthespeaker’smeaning.Grice(1975:
45)believesthattheremustbesomemechanismsgoverningtheproductionandcomprehensionoftheseutterances.Hesuggeststhatthereisasetofassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.ThisiswhathecallstheCooperativePrinciple.Heformulatestheprincipleanditsmaximsasfollows:
Makeyourconversationalcontributionasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionoftheexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.(Yule,2000:
145)
TospecifytheCooperativePrinciplefurther,Griceintroducedfourcategoriesofmaximsasfollows:
Themaximofquantity:
1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).
2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.
Themaximofquality:
1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.
Themaximofrelation:
Berelevant.
Themaximofmanner:
1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.
2.Avoidambiguity.
3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).
4.Beorderly.
Toputitverysimply,theCPmeansthatweshouldsaywhatistrueinaclearandrelevantmanner.Itisimportanttotakethesemaximsasunstatedassumptionswehaveinconversations.Weassumethatpeoplearenormallygoingtoprovideanappropriateamountofinformation,andthattheyaretellingthetruth,beingrelevant,andtryingtobeasclearastheycan.Speakersrarelymentiontheseprinciplessimplybecausetheyareassumedtacitlyinverbalinteractions(刘润清、文旭,2006:
154).
2.2Conversationalimplications
Conversationalimplications,toputitsimply,refertoakindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance.Itisameaningdifferentfromthe“meaning”insemantics.The“meaning”insemanticsistheliteralmeaningofawordorasentence.Forexample,“Haveyoureadtoday’snewspaper?
”justmeansthatthespeakerwantstoknowwhetherthelistenerhasreadthenewspaperornot.The“meaning”inpragmaticsistotallydifferent,focusingonthemeaninginacertaincontext.Sothesentenceabovecanmean“Pleasepassthenewspapertomesinceyouhavereadit.”.The“meaning”insemanticsandthe“meaning”inpragmaticscanbethesame,andcanalsobedifferent.Whentheyaredifferent,conversationalimplicationsaremade(申小龙,2003:
177).
Howdoesthespeakerconveyhisimpliedmeaningwhenheisspeaking?
Andhowdoesthehearermaketherightunderstanding,throughtheliteralmeaning,ofwhatthespeakerindicates?
Grice’sbasicideaisthatincommunication,speakersaimtofollowtheCPanditsmaxims,andthathearersinterpretutteranceswiththesemaximsinmind.AccordingtoGrice,utteranceinterpretationisnotamatterofdecodingmessages,butratherinvolves(i)takingthemeaningofthesentencestogetherwithcontextualinformation,(ii)usingreferencerules,and(iii)workingoutwhatthespeakermeansonthebasisoftheassumptionthattheutteranceconformstothemaxims.ThemainadvantagesofthisapproachfromGrice’spointofviewisthatitprovidesapragmaticexplanationforawiderangeofphenomena,especiallyforconversationalimplication—akindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance(胡壮麟,2001:
205).
TheconversationalimplicationscanbeconcludedbyexaminingwhichmaximoftheCooperativePrinciplethespeakershadviolated.Takethisfollowingconversationforexample:
(2)A:
WheredoesClive?
B:
SomewhereintheSouthofFrance.
Thisviolationcanbeexplainedbytheadherencetothemaximofquality:
SpeakerBcannottruthfullyprovidemoreinformation.Alternatively,insomecontexts,itcanbeexplainedascarryinganimplicationthatthespeakerdoesnot,forsomereasonorother,wanttorevealC’spreciselocation.Ifthemaximsarefouled,thehearerinfersthatthespeakermusthavemeantsomethingelse,thatis,thespeakermusthavesomespecialreasonforhavingnotobservedthemaxims.
3.ApplicationofconversationalimplicationsinEnglishaudio-visualcourse
Inordertoimprovestudents’listeningcomprehension,wehavebothlisteningcourseandEnglishAudio-visualcourseinouruniversityforthefirsttwoyears.InEnglishAudio-visualcourse,wemainlywatchedsomefamousEnglishmoviesandsitcomsandweresometimesrequiredtowritedownactor’slines.Whendoingthis,westudentswerefrequentlyconfusedwithsomeseeminglystrangeconversations.Why,forexample,doestheprotagonistsaysomethingthatisunrelatedtotheirtopic?
Whymusttheheroinemakeherspeechsolongandsoambiguous?
Allthesemadeourcomprehensionimpossibleandconsequently,theactor’slineimpossibletobewrittendown.Butactually,allthesecanbeexplainedbyconversationalimplicaturetheory.Let’stakethecommonestmoviesusedinthiscourse,PrisonBreakandForrestGumpforexample,andseehowtheconversationalimplicaturecanbeappliedinEnglishaudio-visualcourse.
3.1Violationofthemaximofquantityanditsimplications
Themaximofquantityprescribesthequantityofinformationtransmittedwhenwearetalking.Itsaysthatweshouldmakeourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired,andshouldnotmakeourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Toputitinbrief,weshouldtalknomoreandnoless.ButitsviolationsarefrequentlyfoundinEnglishmovies.Letusfirsttakealookatanexample.
(3)Principle:
Forrestisrighthere.ThestaterequiresaminimumI.Q.ofeightytoattendpublicschool,Mrs.Gump.He'sgonnahavetogotoaspecialschool.Now,he'llbejustfine.
Mrs.Gump:
Whatdoesnormalmean,anyway?
Hemightbeabitontheslowside,butmyboyForrestisgoingtogetthesameopportunitiesaseveryoneelse.He'snotgoingtosomespecialschooltolearntohowtore-treadtires.We'retalkingaboutfivelittlepointshere.Theremustbesomethingthatcanbedone.
Principle:
We'reaprogressiveschoolsystem.Wedon'twanttoseeanybodyleftbehind.IsthereaMr.Gump,Mrs.Gump?
Mrs.Gump:
He'sonvacation.
(FromForrestGump)
TheprincipleandMrs.GumparetalkingaboutwhetherForrest,withsuchalowI.Q.,canattendpublicschoolornot.Normally,saying“We’reaprogressiveschoolsystem.Wedon’twanttoseeanybodyleftbehind.”isenoughfortheprincipletoexpresshisopinion,butheadds“IsthereaMr.Gump,Mrs.G
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