二语习得复习提纲.docx
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二语习得复习提纲.docx
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二语习得复习提纲
ChapterI IntroductionDescribing andExplainingL2 Acquisition
1.1Whatissecondlanguageacquisition?
Second languagerefersto anylanguagethatislearned subsequent to the mothertongue.
1.2What arethegoalsof secondlanguage?
ThegoalsofSLAaretodescribehow L2acquisitionproceedsandto explainthisprocess andwhysome learnersseemtobebetteratitthanothers.
1.3Two casestudies ofL2 learners
1.3.1Acasestudy ofan adultlearner
1.3.2Acasestudyoftwochildlearners
Whatdothesecasestudiesshowus?
a.They raiseanumber ofimportantmethodologicalissuesrelating tohowL2acquisitionshouldbe studied
b.They raiseissues relatingtothedescriptionof learnerlanguage
c.They pointoutsomeoftheproblemsresearchersexperienceintryingtoexplainL2acquisition.
1.4Methodological issues
Whatisthatneedstobedescribed?
a. What itmeans to saythatalearnerhasacquired afeatureof thetargetlanguage?
b. Whether learnershaveacquiredaparticularfeature?
c. How tomeasurewhetheracquisitionhastakenplace?
(Learner’s overuseoflinguisticforms.)
1.5Issuesinthedescription oflearnerlanguage
a.Learners makeerrorsofdifferentkinds.
b.Learnersacquireda large numberofformulaic chunks, whichwillinfluencetheirperformancein communicationandthefluency of their unplannedspeech.
c.Whetherlearnersacquire thelanguagesystematically?
1.6Issuesinthe explanation ofL2acquisition
Itemlearning:
formulaic chunks
Systemlearning:
rules
Internal (mentalist)account:
Externalaccount:
Chapter2theNatureofLearner Language
2.1Errors anderror analysis
2.1.1 Identifyingerrors
2.1.1.1 Comparethelearner’s languagewith thenormalones.
2.1.1.2 Distinguish errorsand mistakes.
Definition:
Errorsreflect gapsina learner’sknowledge
Mistakesreflectoccasionallapsesin performance.
Methods:
a.Check theconsistencyoflearners’performance.
b.Askthemto correcttheir own utterance.
Errorsandmistakes:
2.1.2 Describing errors
Methods:
a.errortypeoriented:
b.errormaker oriented:
Meaning:
Classifyingerrors inthesewayscanhelp ustodiagnoselearners’ learning problemsatanyonestageoftheir development and, also toplothow changes inerrorpatternsoccurover time.
2.1.3Explainingerrors
Errorsaresystematic,predictable, andsomeofthemareuniversal:
(Learnershasconstructed somekindof “rule”,albeitaruledifferent fromthatof thetargetlanguage)
Eg:
omission:
leaveoutthearticle“the”,leaveoutthe –sinplural nouns
Overgeneralization error:
eated---ate
Transfer errorsreflectlearnersattempttomakeuseoftheirL1knowledge.
2.1.4Errorevaluation
Types of errors:
Global errors:
violate thewholestructureof thesentence
Localerrors:
affectonly asingleconstituentinthesentence
2.2Developmentalpatterns
2.2.1The earlystageof L2acquisition
Silentperiod:
childrenmakenoattempt to sayanythingtobeginwith.
Thisperiod makesa preparationforsubsequentproduction.
Trialsanderrors:
Mulaic chunks:
they providelearnerswiththemeansof performingusefullanguagefunctionssuch asgreetingsandrequests.
Eg:
“Howdoyoudo?
”
“My nameis___”
Propositionalsimplification:
leavewordsout
Eg:
“Menoblue”
2.2.2Theorderof acquisition
Accuracyorder:
thereis adefiniteaccuracy order andthatthisremains more orlessthesameirrespectiveof the learner’smother tongues,age,andwhetherornottheyhavereceiveformallanguage instruction.
2.2.3Sequenceofacquisition
a.Theacquisitionofaparticulargrammaticalstructure, therefore,must beseenas aprocessinvolvingtransitionalconstructions.
b. Acquisitionfollows aUshapedcourseof development.
c.Theprocessinwhich learnersreorganizetheirexisting knowledgein ordertoaccommodatenew knowledgeiscalledrestructuring.
2.2.4 SomeImplications
a.L2issystematicand universal, reflectingwaysinwhichinternalcognitivemechanisms controlacquisition,irrespectiveof thepersonal backgroundoflearnersor the settingsinwhich theylearn.
b.Somelinguisticfeaturesareinherentlyeasier to learn thanothers.
2.3Variabilityinlearnerlanguage
a. Variabilityisalsosystematic,thatis,learnersusetheirlinguisticsourcesinpredictable ways.
b. Learnersvaryintheir useofthesecondlanguageaccordingto
linguisticcontext(George playing football/..allthetime)
situationalcontext.(kids/daughter)
& psycholinguisticcontext(prepared/unprepared)
c.form-functionmapping
d.free variation:
e. fossilization:
石化成因
任何现象的出现都不是偶然的,是可以追溯出它的原因的,二语习得过程中出现的中介语石化现象也是有着根本性的原因的。
Selinker从中介语理论的分析角度将石化现象形成的原因归纳为五个过程:
母语迁移、培训转移、二语学习策略、二语交际策略和目的语过度概括。
Selinker对石化的解释更多的是石化的主要表现,而没有找出石化的根本原因。
后来,Ellis又对Selinker和Lamendella的研究作了如下总结:
(1)内因:
年龄因素:
即当学习者达到一定的关键期,他们的大脑失去了可塑性,因而就无法掌握某些语言特征;缺乏与目的语社会文化融合的欲望:
由于各种不同的社会和心理因素,学习者对接受目的语文化标准不做出努力。
(2)外因:
交际压力:
持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。
缺乏学习机会:
学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语言的机会。
反馈性质:
对学生第二语言使用的影响:
肯定的认知回馈(表示“我明白你的话”)导致石化的发生;否定的回馈(表示“我听不懂你的话”)有助于消除石化。
应对策略
(一)增加二语的输入量
大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识,就会出现语言的稳定期。
所以外语教学中,当学习者已经达到某种精通程度后,应该增加他的二语输入量。
二语的输入既要重视数量又要重视质量。
课堂教学材料要多样化,当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学习动机的语境和篇章,如报刊文章、海报、广告等。
学生应尽可能多利用课外听、说、读写资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的机会。
第二语言的输入应该包括音位知识、语法和词汇。
第二语言知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。
对语言迁移的研究表明学习者对语言的标志性特征比较敏感,所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。
这样,为了避免石化,语言学习者需要比较母语和目的语的文化,找出存在于两种语言之间结构表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。
(二)融合听、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知
以认知理论对二语学习所做的分析为基础,针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主要原因,并借鉴Brown的建议,针对中级学习者,我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教学方法:
第一种是以内容为中心的教学(content-basedteaching),这种教学以教授某专业的内容为主,把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段,学生要想学好专业课,必须使自己的英语在听、说、
读、写等方面都达到一定的水平才能取得成功;第二种是以主题为中心的教学(theme-based
teaching),这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。
例如英语精读课就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学,目前在我国这种方法已被普遍采用,但由于教师的准备不够,更重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要,所以没能达到这种方法的最佳效果;第三种是以任务为中心的教学(task-basedteaching),这种方法更注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现,在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真实的资料为主,如面试、采访、公告、菜单等,要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务,这样就突出了语言的功能性特点。
对于高级英语学习者来说,提供真实的语境是当务之急,学习者可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、英语电视节目以及用英语写影评、日记等方式来弥补缺少真实语境的不足,另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联网最大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。
Chapter3 Interlanguage
3.1BehavioristLearning Theory
Languagelearningtheoryislikeany other kind of learningin thatit involveshabitformation.
Butitisnot adequatetoadequatelyaccount forL2acquisition,since learnersfrequentlydo notproduceoutputthatsimplyreproduce input.
Habit--stimulus--response connection
3.2Amentalist theoryinlanguagelearning
vMain ideasofthis theory
v1. Onlyhuman beings arecapable oflearninglanguage.
v 2.Thehumanmindisequippedwithafacultyforlearning language→LanguageAcquisitionDevice(语言习得机制).
v3. Thisfacultyis theprimarydeterminantofLA.
v4.Inputis needed, butonlyto'trigger'theoperation of thelanguageacquisitiondevice.
3.3Whatis“interlanguage”?
Itrefersto thesystematicknowledgeofanL2thatisindependentofboth thetarget andthelearner'sL1..Alearner'sinterlanguageis aunique linguisticsystem.
Thepremisesofinterlanguage
v1.Interlanguageisviewedasa'mental grammar'.(心理语法)
v2.Thelearmer'sgrammarispermeable.(渗透性)
v3.Thelearner's grammaristransitional.(迁移)
v4.Thesystemslearnersconstructcontainvariable rules.多变
v5.Learnersemployvariouslearning strategiesto developtheirinterlanguage.(学习策略)
v6.Thelearner'sgrammaris likely tofossilize.(石化)
1.MentalGrammar
vThelearnerconstructsasystem ofabstractlinguisticruleswhichunderliescomprehensionandproductionofthe L2. Thissystemofrulesisviewedasa'mentalgrammar'and isreferredtoas an 'interlanguage'.
2.Permeable
vThegrammaris opentoinfluencefromtheoutside(i.e.throughtheinput).Itis alsoinfluencedfromtheinside.(i.e.omission,overgeneralisation)computationalmodelof L2acquisition
3. Transitional
vLearners changetheirgrammarfromonetimetoanotherby addingrules,deletingrules,andreconstructingthewhole system.
vThisresults in aninterlanguagecontinuum(连续体)
eg.Paint→paint, painting→paint,painting, painted
4.Variable
v Someresearchershaveclaimedthatthesystemslearnersconstructcontain variablerules. Thatis,thelearnersarelikelyto havecompetingrulesatanyone stageofdevelopment.
vOther researchersarguethatinterlanguagesystems arehomogenerousand thatvariabilityreflectsthemistakeslearnersmakewhentheytryto use theirknowledgeto communicate.
v5.learningstrategies
Learnersemployvariouslearningstrategiesto developtheirinterlanguages.Thedifferentkindsoferrorslearners producereflectdifferentlearninf strategies.
6.Fossilization
Selinkersuggestedthatonlyabout5%of learners goontodevelopthe same mentalgrammar asnativespeakers.
3.4Computational model ofL2acquisition
vinput→intake→L2knowledge→output ↓
'Blackbox'ofthelearner'smind=interlanguageconstructed
Otherwaysto elaboratethisbasicmodel
'Socialcontext' added toexplainhowthenature oftheinputvariesfromone settingtoanother
'L2 knowledge'broken up intotwoor morecomponents to reflect thedifferentkindsofknowledgelearnersconstructs.
e.g. explicitknowledgeaboutlanguage&implicitknowledge oflanguage(P35)
Anarrow canbedrawnfrom'output'to'input'.
Chapter 4Social aspectsofinterlanguage
4.1Interlanguageasastylisticcontinuum(风格连续体)
Stylisticcontinuum:
a. careful style谨慎体
b.vernacularstyle通俗体
Problems:
a. Learnersarenot alwaysmostaccurate intheir careful styleandleastcarefulin theirvernacularstyle.
b. theroleof social factors remainsunclear.
Accommodation theory:
Howsocialgroupsinfluencethe coursesof L2acquisition.
(Convergence, divergenc
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