语言学.docx
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语言学.docx
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语言学
•Chapter3
•LEXICONisapuzzlingtermandthebeginnermayfindithardtoapproach.Whatislexicon?
Ifweusethemorefamiliarterm“vocabulary”toreplaceit,thepuzzlementwilldisappear.Inthissense,lexiconisthecollectionofallthewordsofalanguage.wordsarethefocusofthestudyoflexicon,sotheemphasisofthischapternaturallyfallsuponwords,i.e.,theanalysisandcreationofwords
1.What’stheword?
Youmaywonderwhetherthisquestionisworthanswering,becauseeveryoneofuscanidentifyawordwithoutmucheffortduetooureverydaylanguageexperienceandourlanguageintuition
•Words,likebricksusedinbuildinghouses,areready-madeunitsforbuildingsentences.Awordisaunitofexpression(spokenorwritten)thathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers.Itisphysicallydefinableunit;thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofformsandagrammaticalunit.
Linguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfreeforminlanguage.Thepluralmarking–sisnotafreeform(andthereforenotaword)sinceitneveroccursinisolationandcannotbeseparatedfromthenountowhichitbelongs
•Awordismeaningful
•Awordismadeupofsoundsandletters.Butawordistotallydifferentfromsoundsorletters.Awordismeaningfulwhereassoundsorlettersaremeaningless.
•aismeaningfulinthatitcanbeusedtomeanindefinitenesswhenmodifyingnouns.Theletter“a”is,however,meaningless,whichcanbeusedasanelementinbuildingwords.
•Awordisa
GrammaticalUnit
•Thiscanbeunderstoodintwoways.Firstofall,awordinitselfpossessessomegrammaticalfeatures.
•takeistransitiveverb.
•bookisacountablenoun.
•Thenawordisthebasicstructuralunitoflanguage.Itcanenterasentenceandpossessastructuralpositioninthesentence,thusobtainingsomestructuralpositioninthesentence
•Heisanengineer.
•Heisnotmerelyapronoun,itisalsothesubjectofthesentence.
WordisrelativelyStableandUninterruptible
•Comparedwithotherlinguisticunitssuchasphrases,clauses,andsentences,awordisthemoststablelinguisticunit,inrespectofitsinternalstructure,thatis,theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordhavelittlepotentialforrearrangement.
•Chairman
•ifthetwocomponentschairandmanarerearrangedas﹡manchair,itisanunacceptablewordinEnglish.
•ByUNINTERRUPTIBILITY,wemeannewelementsarenotinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.
•Dis-appoint-ment
•Nothingistobeinsertedinbetweenthethreeparts.
•Incontrast,onecouldaddJaneinthecoordinatingsubjectofthefollowingsentence.
•Paul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.
•(Even)Paul(even)didn’t(even)love(even)Jane.
Classificationofwords
•Variableandinvariablewords
(可变词和不变词)
•Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords
(语法词和词汇词)
•Closed-classwordsandopenclasswords
(封闭类词和开放类词)
•Wordclass
(词类)
Variableandinvariablewords
•Variablewordshaveinflectiveendings,i.e.partofthewordremainsconstantwhiletheotherpartchangesregularlytofulfilldifferentgrammaticalfunctions.
•可变词有形态变化,即词的一部分保持不变,另一部分有规则地变化以实现不同的语法功能
•Invariablewordsdon’thaveinflectionalendingssuchassince,whenandhello.
•Followmat
•Followsmats
•Following
•Followed
•Thesamewordmayhavedifferentgrammaticalformsbutpartofthewordremainsrelativelyconstant.
Grammaticalwordandlexicalwords
•Thoseexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,likeconjunctions,prepositionsandpronounsaregrammaticalwords-functionword(功能词).
•Thosehavinglexicalmeaningisreferringtothesubstance,actionandquality,likenouns,verbsandadverbsarelexicalwords-contentword(实义词).
Closed-classwordsandopenclasswords
•Theclosed-classisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedsuchaspronouns,prepositionsandconjunctions,articles,etc.
•Theopen-classisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyverbs.
Word-class:
Besidesthetraditionalnoun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection(语气词)andarticle,particles(小品词),auxiliaries,anddeterminers(限定词)canbeadded.
Particles
•Particlesincludesatleasttheinfinitivemarker“to”(eventhoughithasthesamespellingformasthepreposition“to”,itreallyhasnothingincommonwithtooranyotherwordclass);thenegativemarker“not”andthesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs.
•Getby,doupandlookback:
过活,包好,追忆
Auxiliaries
•AUXILIARIESusedtoberegardedasverbs.Linguiststodaytendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclassratherthanverbs,owingtotheiruniqueproperties.
•Comparingthebehaviorofauxiliarieswiththatofordinaryverbsinthefollowingexamples:
•NEGATIONIcan’tcome
﹡Iwantn’tcome
•INVERSIONIshecoming?
﹡Keepshecoming?
•CODEI’llcomeandsowillhe.
﹡IintendtocomeandsointendsBill.
•EMPHASISHedoescome
﹡Heseemstocome
Proforms
•Intraditionalgrammar,pronounistheonlywordclasswhichcanfunctionasasubstituteforanotheritem.Tobemoreexact,itreferstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgrouporasinglenoun.Infact,thefollowingitemsareeitherlabeledaspronounortotallyneglected.
•Pro-adjective
Yourpenisred.Soismine.
•Pro-verb
HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.
HeknowsEnglishbetterthanshedoes.
•Pro-locative
Jame’shidingthere,behindthedoor.
Inordertorefercollectivelytotheitemsinasentencewhichsubstituteforotheritemsorconstructions,somelinguistshaveadvisedtoregardPOR-FORMasaseparatewordclass
Determiners
ThisisanewwordclasspopularlyrecognizedbothinBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish.Itreferstothosewordswhichareusedbeforethenoun(includingitspre-modifierslikeadjectives)actingasheadofanominalgroup,andwhichdeterminethekindofreferencethenominalgrouphas
•Forexample,whetheritisdefinite(likethe)orindefinite(likea(n)),partitive(likesome)oruniversal(likeall)
•AccordingtoQuirk,etal(1985:
253),therearethreesub-classesofDETERMINERS:
•pre-determiners
•centraldeterminers
•Pre-determinersincludeall,both,half,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifthandthelike.
•Themostcommonandtypicalcentraldeterminersarethedefiniteandindefinitearticles.Othersarethis,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,other,neither,my,our,his,her,itsandtheiretc..
•Post-determinersincludecardinalnumerals,ordinalnumerals,generalordinalslikenext,last,past,(an)other,additional;
•Otherquantifierslikemany,(a)few,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,etc
•Whendifferentdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderof
pre-+central+post-
•Withineachsub-class,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.
•Bothordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals.
•Thuswedonotfindthefollowingexpressions:
•﹡theiralltrouble√alltheirtrouble
•﹡fivetheallboys√allthefiveboys
•﹡thethisboy
•﹡allbothgirls
•√inthefirsttwodays
•√anothertwoday
Morpheme
•Aswehavementionedabove,wordismeaningful.However,wordisbynomeansthesmallestmeaningfulunit.
•Inwordslikeunjustandbooks,bothun-and-saremeaningful.Buttheyarenotfree,thatis,theycannotbeusedindependently.
•s
•Inlinguistics,theminimalunitofmeaningiscalledMORPHEME.Itisthesmallestunitintermsoftherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.
•语素是最小的语言单位,不能进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
•Soun-and-sarebothmorphemes,becausebothofthemaremeaningfulandnotfurtherdividablewithoutdestroyingtheirmeanings.Thesameistruewithwordsjustandbook.
•thenwhatistherelationshipbetweenwordandmorpheme?
•Whileawordmayconsistofonemorphemeormorethanonemorpheme,amorphememaynotnecessarilyrepresentaword.
•1-Morphemeun-,-ish,-s,-ed
•1-Morphemewordboy,desire,get,boy
•2-Morphemewordboy+ish,desir(e)+able
•3-Morphemewordboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+abl(e)+ity
•4-Morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity
•5-Morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness
•Over-5-morphemeword(7)anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism
•Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformedincludinginflectionandwordformation.
•ThesystematicstudyofamorphemeisabranchoflinguisticscalledMOROHOLOGY.
Morphemescanbesubclassifiedintodifferenttypes,dependingonwhatcriteriaweattempttofollow
•Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitselfiscalledafreemorpheme,whereasamorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotheroneisaboundmorpheme.Dog,nationclose-free
•Paymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfatherandsunflower-compound
•Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Andpolymorphemicwords,whichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,areCOMPOUNDs.
•Boundmorphemescannotoccuralone.Theymustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.
•Theworddistemperedhasthreemorphemes,namely,dis-,temper,and–ed,ofwhichtemperisafreemorpheme,dis-and–edaretwoboundmorphemes.
•InChinese,老in老板,老虎,老师,老婆,老百姓,and子in包子,杯子,面子arebothboundmorphemes.
Morphemesmayhavedifferentforms.ThemorphemeusedtoexpressindefinitenessinEnglishhastwoforms:
•abeforeawordthatbeginswithconsonantandanbeforeawordthatbeginswithavowel.
•Anorange/hour/interestingbook
•Abuilding/European/university
Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts
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