词汇学chapter18重点知识.docx
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词汇学chapter18重点知识.docx
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词汇学chapter18重点知识
Chapter3MorphologystructureofEnglishwords
3.1Morphemes
Thedefinitionofamorpheme:
Themorpheme(词素)isthesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguage,notdivisibleoranalyzableintosmallerforms.Awordisthesmallestunitofalanguagethatstandsalonetocommunicatemeaning.Structurally,however,awordisnotthesmallestunitbecausemanywordscanbeseparatedintosmallermeaningfulunits.Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.WhatisusuallyconsideredasinglewordinEnglishmaybecomposedofoneormoremorphemes
Wordscanhaveaninternalstructure,i.e.theyaredecomposableintosmallermeaningfulparts.Thesesmallestmeaningfulunitswecallmorphemes.
Onemorpheme:
nation
Twomorphemes:
nation-al
Threemorphemes:
nation-al-ize
Fourmorphemes:
de-nation-al-ize
确定语素必须满足两个标准,一是含义相近,二是发音相近.
-ly在manly,princely,friendly中属于同一个语素.
-er在worker,teacher,speaker,swimmer等词中意为"做…的人",属于同一语素,
但在manner一词并不是man和-er合起来的意思,所以manner不能看作是由man和-er两个语素构成,其中的-er也不能看作是与worker中的-er相同的语素.
3.2ClassificationofMorphemes
Morphemescanbeclassifiedinvariousways.
free
bound
root
affix
inflectional
derivational
Morphemesmaybeclassifiedintofreeandbound.
Freemorphemes(自由词素),alsocalledcontentmorphemes(实义词素),mayconstitutewordsbythemselves.
Boundmorphemes(粘着词素),knownasgrammaticalmorphemes(语法词素),mustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,eitherfreeorbound.
3.2.1TypesofMorphemes—freevs.bound
●Freemorphemes(自由词素)
Morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesareconsideredtobefree.Freemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Therefore,wemightaswellsaythatfreemorphemesarecontentmorphemes(实义词素)orfreeroots(自由词根).
man,earth,wind,faith,red,write….
●BoundMorphemes(粘着词素)
Morphemeswhichcannotoccurasseparatewordsarebound.Theyaresonamedbecausetheyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwords.Unlikefreemorphemes,theydonothaveindependentsemanticmeaning;instead,theyhaveattachedmeaning(un-kind,hope-ful)orgrammaticalmeaning(cat-s,slow-ly,walk-ing,call-ed).Theyarealsocalledgrammaticalmorphemes.
3.2.2typesofmorphemes—rootvs.affixes
Morphemesmayalsobeclassifiedintoroots(orrootmorphemes)andaffixes(oraffixationalmorphemes).
definitionofroot:
Arootisthepartoftheword-formwhichremainswhenalltheaffixeshavebeenremoved.
Arootisthebasicunchangeablepartofawordwhichconveysthefundamentalmeaningoftheword.
Twotypesofroots–Freeroots:
Morphemesaresaidtobefreeiftheycanstandaloneaswords(InEnglish,manyrootsarefreeroots)blackinblack,blackboard,blacksmith,blackmail.
Boundroots:
Theyaresocalledbecausetheyarealwaysboundtosomethingelse.Theycannotexistontheirownceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive,deceive.
Boundroots(粘着词根):
Aboundrootisthatpartofthewordthatcarriesthefundamentalmeaningjustlikeafreeroot.Unlikeafreeroot,itisaboundformandhastocombinewithothermorphemestomakewords.
(However,therearequiteanumberofrootswhichcannotexistontheirownandthusbelongtotheclassofboundmorphemes.
Forexample,ceiveinreceive,conceive,perceive,deceive.theserootscannotbeusedtoformnewwords.)
Aroot,whetheritisfreeorbound,generallycarriesthemaincomponentofmeaninginaword.
therefore,thataknowledgeofrootscanhelponetoanalyzeandunderstandmanywordsalmostonsight.AlthoughtheLatinandGreekrootsareusuallyboundmorphemesandcannotstandalone,itishelpfultorecognizesomeofthecommonones,sincethousandsofEnglishwordsarebuiltonthem.KnowingthemeaningoftheserootscanhelpclarifythemeaningofmanyEnglishwords.
3.2.3Twotypesofaffixes
Affixes(词缀):
Affixesareformsthatareattachedtowordsorwordelementstomodifymeaningorfunction.Accordingtothefunctionsofaffixes,wecanputthemintotwogroups:
inflectional(曲折词缀)andderivational(派生词缀)affixes.
Affixescanbedividedintoinflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.Thisreflectstwomajormorphological(wordbuilding)processes:
Affixisacollectivetermforthetypeofformative(构词成分)thatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.
●Inflectionalaffixes:
doesnotformanewmeaningwhenitisaddedtoanotherword.Nordoesitchangethepartofthewordtowhichitisaffixed.
●Derivationalaffixes:
whentheyareaddedtoanothermorpheme,theyderiveanewword.
Manyhaveaspecificlexicalmeaning.Quiteanumberofthemhavemorethanonemeaning.Theyhaveaffectivemeaning
3.2.3affixes
●Inflectionalaffixes(曲折词缀)
Affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.Forexample:
cats,walked,walking,John’sbook…
●Derivationalaffixes(派生词缀)
Affixesaddedtoothermorphemestocreatenewwords.Theycanbefurtherdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes
Prefixes(前缀);Suffixes(后缀)
Inflectionalaffixes(orinflectionalmorphemes)servetoexpressthefollowingmeanings:
(1)plurality:
e.g.-sinchairs,pens;-esinboxes,tomatoes;eninoxen.
(2)thegenitivecase:
e.g.’sinboy’s,children’s.
(3)theverbalendings:
forexample,
a.-(e)sinwordslikeeats,teachesshowsthethirdpersonsingularpresenttense.
b.-inginwordslikeeating,teachingshowsthepresentparticipleorgerund.
c.-(e)dinwordslikeworked,savedshowsthepasttenseorpastparticiple.
(4)thecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees:
e.g.-erinwordslikesmaller,harder;-estinwordslikesmallest,hardest.
●DerivationalMorphemes--eitherbychangingthemeaningofthebasetowhichtheyareattached;orbychangingthegrammaticalcategory(partofspeech)ofthebase
DerivationalAffixesaresubdividedintoprefixesandsuffixes
(1)Prefixesareaffixesbeforetheroot,e.g.unjust,rewrite.
Asarule,mostprefixesmodifythemeaningofroots,butnottheirpartsofspeech.
task:
listsomeprefixesthatcanmodifythepartsofspeech.-en-(em-)asinwordslikeembody,enrich
(2)Suffixesareaffixesaftertheroot,e.g.darkness,worker.
Bytheadditionofthesuffix,thewordisusuallychangedfromonepartofspeechintoanother,e.g.liberation,modernize
Bothprefixesandsuffixesmaybegroupedaccordingto:
1.Theirlinguisticorigin:
Native/foreignaffixes
1).NativeaffixesarethosethatexistedintheOEperiodorwereformedfromOEwords,suchasun-,mis-,be-,out-,over-,-ness,-dom,-hood,-ly,and–er.
2).ForeignaffixescameasapartofloanwordsfromLatin,Greek,French,orotherlanguages.Examples:
ab-(L),bi-(L),dis-(L),re-(L),kilo-(Gk),poly-(Gk),mal-(F),-ic(Gk),-ism(Gk),-ist(Gk),-able(F),and–ize(F).
Ahybrid混合词isawordmadeupofelementsfromtwoormoredifferentlanguages.
2.Theirproductivity:
Affixes(suchasre-,un-,-able,-ize)arecalledproductiveorlivingwhentheycanbeusedtoformnewwords.
Thosethatarenolongerusedtoformnewwordsaretermeddeadorunproductive.
Examplesofdeadaffixesare:
for-asinforget,forgiveandforbid;with-asinwithdraw,withholdandwithstand,and–antor–entasinservant,different,etc.
Sum:
InflectionandDerivation
Derivationalmorphemesareusedtocreatenewlexicalitems(lexemes(词位)).
Inflectionalmorphemesonlycontributetotheinflectionalparadigm词形变化ofthelexemes,whichlistsalltheword-formsofthelexeme.
3.2TypesofMorphemes
Diagramofmorphemes
classificationofwordsonamorphemiclevel
Onthislevel,words,accordingtothenumberandtypeofmorphemestheycontain,canbeclassifiedinto:
(1)simplewords:
thoseconsistingofasinglemorpheme,suchasman,work,kind;
(2)derivedwords:
thosewhicharetheresultofaderivationalprocess.Suchwordsusuallyconsistofafreemorphemeandone(ormorethanone)boundmorpheme,suchasfruitless,fruitful,unfruitful,unfruitfulness;
(3)compoundwords:
thosewhicharecomposedoftwoormorefreemorphemes,e.g.deepstructure,spacesuit,forget-me-not,stick-in-the-mud,andjackofalltrades.
3.3Morphandallomorph
Thedefinitionofmorph(语素形式/词素形式)
-phonological(音韵的)andorthographical(拼写的)formsusedtorepresentmorphemes.Morphemescanberepresentedinbraces.Forexample,{big}ispronouncedas/big/andspelledasbig,thus/big/andbigarerespectivelythephonologicalandorthographicalmorphsof{big}.
Morpheme,Morph,Allomorph
Amorphisaphysicalformrepresentingacertainmorphemeinalanguage.
Sometimesdifferentmorphsmayrepresentthesamemorpheme;i.e.,amorphememaytakedifferentforms.Ifso,theyarecalledallomorphsofthatmorpheme.
Anallomorph(词素变体)isanyofthevariantformsofamorphemeasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds.
区别:
语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme(又可称为形位、语素等)。
词素是抽象的,它是通过词素形式morph表现出来的。
词素还具有变体形式,在语言学中称为词素变体allomorph。
Allomorphsaremorphsincomplementarydistribution;i.e.theyareneverfoundinidenticalcontexts.
Thechoiceofallomorphusedinagivencontextisnormallybasedonthepropertiesoftheneighboringsounds.
Example:
Thethirdpersonsingularverbsuffixandthepluralnominalsuffix–sinEnglish
Verbsendingwiththesound/t/usuallytake–ion(asininvent,invention);
verbsendingwithconsonantsotherthan/t/take–tion(asindescribe,description);
verbsendingin–ifyand–izetake–ation(asinjustify,justification;modernize,modernization);
verbsendingin–d,-de,or–mit,take–sion(asinexpansion,decision,omission);thereareexceptions:
attend,attention;convert,conversion,etc.
Aprefixlikeim-occursbeforep,b,orm(imperfect,imbalance,
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