新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 整理.docx
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新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 整理.docx
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新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter1:
Introduction
1.Linguistics:
语言学Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.
(Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butitstudieslanguageingeneral)
2.Generallinguistics:
普通语言学Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.
(languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets)
3.Language:
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
4.descriptive(描述性):
Alinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.
5.prescriptive(规定性):
Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviors.
i.e.whattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnottosay.
6.synchronic(共时语言学):
thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointoftimeinhiatory
7.diachronic(历时语言学):
thedescriptionoflanguageasitchangesthroughtime
3)speech(口语)Writing(书面语)
Thesethetwomediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.(speechispriortowriting)
8.langue(语言):
referstoabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofthespeechcommunity.
Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Suchas:
InEnglishsentencemusthavesubjectandpredicate.
9.parole(言语):
referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.
Itisconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.(Saussure)
petence(语言能力):
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage
11.performance(语言应用):
theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.(Chomsky)
traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics
1.linguisticsisdescriptive,whiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive
2.modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewriter.
3.alsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoalatin-basedframework.
Functionsoflanguage.
1.thedescriptivefunction.
2.theexpressivefunction
3.thesocialfunction
Chapter2:
Phonology音系学
phonetics:
thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;
itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages9.
Thethreebranchesofphonetics
(1).Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)(longesthistory)
(2.)Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)
(3)Acousticphonetics(声学语音学)
2.Speechorgans:
threeimportantareas
⑴Pharyngealcavity咽腔----thethroat;
⑵Theoralcavity口腔----themouth;
⑶Nasalcavity–鼻腔---thenose.
Theprinciplesourcesuchmodificationsisthetongue.
Thetongueisthemostflexible.
InternationalPhoneticAlphabet[IPA]:
thebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.
Broadtranscription宽式音标.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.
Narrowtranscription窄式音标Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.
Aspiratedandunaspirated
1).phonology:
音系学Itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
4.Phone,phoneme,allophone
Aphone音素isaphoneticunitorsegment.
Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[bI:
t]&[bIt],[spIt]&[spIt].
Aphoneme音位isaphonologicalunit;
itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pIt],[tIp]and[spIt].
Allophones音素变体----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments
sequentialrule,
⑴Sequentialrule(序列规则):
rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.
⑵Assimilationrule(同化规则):
ruleassimilatingonesoundtoanotherbycopyingfeaturesofsequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.
⑶Deletionrule(省略规则):
rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.
6.Suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征)
⑴Stress
Wordstressandsentencestress
⑵Tone声调
Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.
Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.
⑶Intonation语调
Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.
Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:
fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)
risingtone(doubtsorquestion)
thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)
thefrise-falltone(notfrequentlyused)
Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.
Chapter3:
Morphology
1).Morphology形态学:
referstothethestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed
2).Morpheme词素:
Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.
3).Freemorpheme自由词素:
amorphemecanbeawordbyitself.
4).Boundmorpheme.黏着词素:
amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone.
5).Allmorphs词素变体:
thevariantformsofamorpheme
Chapter4:
Syntax
Syntax句法学:
Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
Word-levelcategories
1,Majorlexicalcategories
2.minorlexicalcategories
Todetermineaword’scategorie,threecriteraareusuallyemployed
1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.
Phrase:
syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacentainwordcategory
complementizerswordswhichintroducethesentencecomplement
complementclausethesentenceintroducedbythecmomplementizers
D-structure:
formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties
S-structure:
correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsformappropriatetransformation.
Chapter5:
Semantics
Semantics:
语义学canbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.
1)Thenamingtheory(命名论)
Oldestnotionsconceringmeaning.mostprimitiveone.
ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.
wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.
2)Theconceptualistview(意念论)
Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalin-guisticformandwhatitrefersto.Intheinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.
3)Contextualism(语境论)
①Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:
②Situationalcontext:
spatiotemporalsituation
③Linguisticcontext:
theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.
④Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.
4)Behaviorism(行为主义论)
Bloomfield
①Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.
②ThestoryofJackandJill:
JillJack
S_________r--------s_________R
3.Senseandreference
①Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.
②Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.
4.Majorsenserelations
Synonymy(同义关系)
Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.
Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.同义词
completesynonyms,i.e.synonymythataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstances,arerare
Homonymy(同音/同形异义)
Homonymy:
Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,
(1)Homophones(同音异义):
Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones.
e.g.rain/reign.
(2)Homographs(同形异义):
Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.
e.g.tearv./tearn.
(3)Completehomonyms(同音同形异义):
Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.
e.g.fastv./fastadj.;scalev./scale.n.
Hyponymy(下义关系)
Hyponymy:
Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.
eg.superordinate:
flower
hyponyms:
rose,tulip,carnation,lily
Antonymy(反义关系)
thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning
1)Gradableantonyms(等级反义词)----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short…
2)Complementaryantonyms(互补反义词)----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female…
3)Relationalopposites(关系反义词)----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below…
2) Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:
1.grammaticalmeaning
2.semanticmeaning,e.g.
selectionalrestrictions.
Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrules
eg.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers
Predicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).
Chapter6:
Pragmatics
1).Pragmatics:
语用学thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.
Pragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning.
Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmeaning
Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.
⑴Austin’snewmodelofspeechacts
Utterancemeaning:
themeaningofanutteranceisc
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