civilisation6.docx
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civilisation6.docx
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civilisation6
/TheBirthoftheModernEnvironmentalMovement1960-1980
/1.Theenvironmentalmovementandthecounter-cultureofthe1960s
/a.Thecounter-cultureandtheNewLeft
⏹1960s:
socialunrest,widespreadpoliticalprotest
⏹Heterogeneousmovement:
Marxists,hippies,feminists,civilrightsactivists,anti-Vietnamwaractivists,studentsseekingtoreformuniversities…
⏹ArejectionofmainstreamUSculture,dominantvaluesandstandardsofconduct
/TheCounterCultureAgainsttheTechno-IndustrialOrder
⏹2maintrendsincounterculturalthinking:
⏹Rejectionofso-calledtraditionalvalues
⏹RadicalquestioningofAmericanfaithintechnologicalprogress
→FearofbureaucratisationandrationalisationofAmericanlife
e.g.WilliamH.Whythe,TheOrganizationMan(1956)
/HerbertMarcuse(1898-1979)
⏹Goal:
reviseMarxisttheorytoanalysethenewindustrialandurbanorder
⏹One-DimensionalMan(1964):
indictmentoftheroleperformedbytechnologyinmodernculture(amongotherthings)
/HerbertMarcuse,One-DimensionalMan(1964)
“Theanalysisisfocusedonadvancedindustrialsociety,inwhichthetechnicalapparatusofproductionanddistribution(withanincreasingsectorofautomation)functions,notasthesum-totalofmereinstrumentswhichcanbeisolatedfromtheirsocialandpoliticaleffects,butratherasasystemwhichdeterminesaprioritheproductoftheapparatusaswellastheoperationsofservicingandextendingit.Inthissociety,theproductiveapparatustendstobecometotalitariantotheextenttowhichitdeterminesnotonlythesociallyneededoccupations,skills,andattitudes,butalsoindividualneedsandaspirations.Itthusobliteratestheoppositionbetweentheprivateandpublicexistence,betweenindividualandsocialneeds.Technologyservestoinstitutenew,moreeffective,andmorepleasantformsofsocialcontrolandsocialcohesion.”
/PaulGoodman(1911-1972)
⏹Communitas(1947/1960):
questionedtheAmericanwayoflifepartlyonecologicalgrounds
⏹GrowingUpAbsurd(1956):
critiqueof“theorganizedsystem”:
arationalisedsocialenvironmentwhichofferedyoungpeoplenoopportunitytomatureintoresponsibleadultsandcitizens
/TheodoreRoszak,TheMakingofaCounterCulture(1970)
⏹Coinedtheexpression‘counterculture’
⏹Counterculture=awaytorejectbureaucracyandembracegenuinefreedom
/TheCounterCultureGoesGreen
“Thetroubleis,wedon’ttrusttothewayoftheworld.Wehavelearned−inpartfromtheacceleratingurbanizationoftherace,inpartfromtheobjectivemodeofconsciousnesssoinsistentlypromulgatedbyWesternscience,inpart,too,perhaps,fromthegeneralChristiandisparagementofnature−tothinkofnatureasapitofsnaresandsorrows.Natureisthatwhichmustbetakenunsentimentallyinhandandmadeliveablebyfeverisheffort,ideallybyreplacingmoreandmoreofitwithman-madesubstitutes.Sothen,perhapssomedayweshallinhabitatotallyplasticworld,clinicallyimmaculateandwhollypredictable.Toliveinsuchacompletelyprogrammedenvironmentbecomesmoreandmoreourconceptionofrationalorder,ofsecurity[Roszak,TheMakingofaCounterCulture,1970].”
/Gradualgreeningofthecounterculture
⏹ConstructionoftheBodegaBaynuclearplant(California)cancelledin1964
→intensificationofanti-nuclearactivisminthe1970s
⏹CritiqueofthewastefulnessoftheUSWayofLife(consumerismatahighenvironmentalcost)
e.g.TheHippies
/Subsequentinfluenceofthecounter-cultureontheUSenvironmentalmovement
⏹Newissuesontheenvironmentalagenda:
overpopulation,qualityoflifeissues,pollution,pesticideuse,urbansprawl…
⏹Influxofformercounterculturistsinenvironmentalorganisations:
⏹MadethetoneandattitudeofUSenvironmentalismmoreconfrontational,radical,andleft-wing
⏹Anenvironmentalistcandidatetothepresidentialelectionin1980(BarryCommoner→0.27%)
⏹Greenpeacein1971,inCanada:
fusingofpacifismandenvironmentalactivism
/2.Theprofessionalizationofmajorenvironmentalorganisations
/a.TheroadtoEarthDay:
theriseofenvironmentalconsciousnessinthe1960s
⏹1962:
SilentSpringbyRachelCarson→drewtheattentionofthepublictothedangersofpesticides.Hugesuccess
⏹Severalenvironmentalcatastrophesreceivedalotofmediaattention
/1969:
burningoftheCuyahogariver
/1969:
SantaBarbaraoilspill
/EarthDay,April22,1970
⏹OrganisedbySenatorGaylordNelson(D-Wisconsin)
⏹Hugesuccess(10millionparticipants)
⏹Mainconcern:
pollution.Anthropocentricagenda
⏹All-inclusiveevent
⏹LandmarkinAmericanenvironmentalhistory
/b.Congressionalactivity
⏹1970s:
environmentaldecade→18environmentallawspassedbyCongressbetween1970and1980
⏹2sortsoflaw:
⏹Pollutioncontrol
⏹Wildernesspreservation
/Wildernesspreservation
⏹WildernessAct(1964)→WildernessPreservationSystem
⏹EndangeredSpeciesAct(1973)
⏹1960sand1970s:
87unitsaddedtonationalparksystem
→1980:
AlaskaNationalInterestLandsConservationAct
/Pollutioncontrol
⏹CleanAirAct(1963,65,70,77,90)
⏹CleanWaterAct(1960,72,77)
⏹NEPA(NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(1969)
⏹Awealthofotherexamples
/1970:
EPA(EnvironmentalProtectionAgency)
⏹Environmentalwatchdog
⏹Mandate:
implementandenforceenvironmentallegislationandenvironmentalstandards
⏹Morepressureonbusinessandindustrialinterestsbutalsoongovernment(federal,stateorlocal)
→Environmentalpolicysystemestablishedinthe1970s
/Consequencesofnewenvironmentalpolicysystem
⏹Fix-itconception:
economicgrowthremainedparamount.Regulatingtheexistingsystem≠replacingit
⏹Pollutioncontrolindustry:
engineeringcompanies,wastemanagementoperation,lawfirms…
e.g.Wastemanagementbusiness:
$1billioninrevenuein1970→$25billionin1990
/c.Majorenvironmentalorganisationsfrom1960to1980:
developmentandtactics
⏹Hugeincreaseinsize,membershipandimportance:
⏹SierraClub:
20.000membersin1959→113.000in1970→165.000in1980
⏹AudubonSociety:
41.000in1962→120.000in1970→400.000in1980
⏹AfterEarthDay:
200nationalandregionalenvironmentalgroups;3000localenvironmentalgroups
/Newenvironmentalorganisations
⏹1967:
EnvironmentalDefenceFund(EDF)
→“Suethebastards!
”
⏹1971:
SierraClubLegalDefenceFund
/Tactics
⏹Extensiveuseofcourtsandlitigation(20.000environmentallawyersby1989)
/Professionalization
⏹Ecology:
BigSciencealongsideBigGovernmentandBigBusiness
⏹Lawyers,scientists,lobbyists,fundraisers,publicists…
⏹“Envirocrats”throughtheuseoftherevolving-doorsystem
⏹Contributionsfromcorporations(BP,Monsanto…)
/Lobbying
⏹PartoftheAmericanlegislativeprocess
⏹Multiplevetopoints
⏹EasieraccesstocentresofpowerintheUSthaninEurope
⏹Sincethe1970s:
lobbying=alucrativeindustry
/Before1960s:
corporateinterestschallengedonlybylabourinterests
⏹CharlesE.Wilson(SecretaryofDefenceandformerCEOofGeneralMotors)in1953:
“WhatisgoodforGeneralMotorsisgoodforthecountry.”
/1970s:
environmentallobbyists
⏹Moreandmoreenvironmentalregulations
⏹Moreandmorepressurefromenvironmentalgroups
→Intensifiedtheneedforlobbying:
WashingtonDC=apoliticalbattlegroundbetweenenvironmentalistsandbigbusiness
⏹By1970s:
allmajorenvironmentalorganisationshaveheadquartersinWashington
⏹1970:
LeagueofConservationVoters
/3.Fightingagainstpollution:
grassrootsmovements
/a.SilentSpring(1962)
⏹RachelCarson(1907-1964)
⏹AkeytextinUSenvironmentalhistory
/Syntheticrevolutioninthemid-20thcentury
⏹Petrochemicalindustry:
asuccessstory
⏹Pesticides:
afixtureinagricultureandothercommercialuses
⏹AfterWW2,widespreaduseofpesticides,DDTandotherchemicals
/SilentSpring
⏹Pesticidescanbeharmfulforhumansandecosystems
⏹Ecologicalpieceofwork:
bacteriaandinsectsplayaroleinthebalanceofnature
⏹“Thissoilcommunity[…]consistsofawebofinterwovenlives,eachinsomewayrelatedtotheothers−thelivingcreaturesdependingonthesoil,butthesoilinturnisavitalelementoftheearthonlysolongasthiscommunitywithinitflourishes.”
/SilentSpring
“The‘controlofnature’isaphraseconceivedinarrogance,bornoftheNeanderthalageofbiologyandphilosophy,whenitwassupposedthatnatureexistsfortheconvenienceofman.TheconceptsandpracticesofappliedentomologyforthemostpartdatefromthatStoneAgeofscience.Itisouralarmingmisfortunethatsoprimitiveasciencehasarmeditselfwiththemostmodernandterribleweapons,andthatinturningthemagainsttheinsectsithasalsoturnedthemagainsttheearth.”
/
⏹Best-seller
⏹Hugeimpactonthegeneralpublic
⏹Introducedecologicalsciencetothegeneralpublic
⏹RachelCarsondiedin1964
⏹DDTbannedintheUnitedStatesin1972
/b.Grassrootsactivism:
values,goals,tactics
⏹Before1960s:
toxicwastestreatedlikeothersortsofwastes
⏹Pollutionnotreallyanissuebeforethe1960s
⏹1960s:
growingawarenessofthedangerposedbytoxicwastes:
⏹1962:
SilentSpring
⏹Environmentalcatastrophes
→100soflocalgrassrootsorganisations
e.g.GASP(GroupAgainstSmogandPollution)
/Localactiongroups
⏹Anthropocentricagenda:
pollutioncontrolratherthanwildernesspreservation
⏹NIMBYs(NotInMyBackyard)
⏹Forcebusinessesandauthoritiestorightenvironmentalwrongs:
toxicdumps,contaminatedwatersupplies,nuclearplants,garbageincinerators…
/RalphNader
⏹Mid-1960s:
wonahigh-profilelawsuitagainstGeneralMotors
⏹Anetworkofpublicinterestorganisationstocurbcorporatepower
⏹PIRGs(PublicInterestResearchGroups):
campaigns
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