城市经济学奥沙利文Chap012.ppt
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城市经济学奥沙利文Chap012.ppt
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UrbanEconomics,城市,城市经济学,12,Education,Introduction,EducationalachievementvariesacrossspaceQualityoflocalschoolsisimportantfactorinlocationdecisionsLocaleducationinfluenceseconomicgrowth,12-2,SpendingandEducationalAchievement,Table12-1:
Significantinterstatevariationink-12spendingTable12-2:
StudenttestScoresindifferentcountriesTable12-3:
StudentachievementinSelectedCitiesRacialachievementgapReadingproficiency:
White=43%;Black=12%Mathproficiency:
White=51%;Black=14%,12-3,12-4,12-5,12-6,Productionfunction:
Achievement=f(H,P,C,E,T),H(home):
rulesforhomework;motivation;instructionalmaterialP(classroompeer):
boostedbysmart&motivatedpeersSweden:
increaseP(50thto84thpct)increasesA(50thto54thpct)Tradeoffswithpeereffect:
SortingversusMixingLowachieverbenefitsatcostofhighachieverMixedevidence:
Gainsoflowvs.lossofhigh,12-7,DifferencesinTeacherProductivity,Innercity:
Gapbetweenhigh-quality&low-qualityteacher=1gradelevelTeacherswap:
Replaceaverageteacher(50thpct)withsuperiorteacher(84thpct)Averagestudentmovesfrom50thto58thstudentpercentileEarnings(58th)-earnings(50th)=$21,311For20-studentclass,valueofsuperiorteacher=$426,000,12-8,CharacteristicsofProductiveTeachers,ListofproductivitycharacteristicsiselusiveEducationlevel:
noevidencethatgraduatecourseworkincreasesproductivityExperienceincreasesproductivityforfirstfewyearsVerbalskillsincreaseproductivity,12-9,EffectsofClassSize,AchievementincreasesasclasssizedecreasesFigure12-1:
EfficientnumberofteachersMarginalbenefitcurvenegativelysloped:
diminishingreturnsMarginalcostcurvehorizontalatteacherwageEfficiency:
MB=MCEvidenceMB(earnings)closetoMC,12-10,12-11,TeacherCompensation:
Experiencepremiumpuzzle,Teachercompensationincreasesbyroughly$1,000peryearProductivitydoesntincreasewithexperienceafter3years20-yearteacherearns1.44timesasmuchasa3-yearteacherFigure12-2:
Efficientlevelofexperience2years,12-12,12-13,TeacherCompensation:
Masterspremiumpuzzle,PremiumforMastersdegree=26%Marginalbenefitofgraduateeducation=zeroWhydoschoolspayforsomethingthatdoesntincreaseachievement?
12-14,No-excuseCharterSchools,ExtendedschooldayEmphasisondisciplineHighexpectationsMonitorstudentperformancewithfrequenttesting,12-15,PromiseAcademy,AveragestudentspendstwiceasmuchtimeonschoolworkSearchforsuperiorteachersgenerateshighturnoverrateTypicalstudent(math):
From39thto74thpercentileTypicalstudent(read):
From39thto53rdpercentileGains:
Superiorteachers&focussedlearningenvironment,12-16,BoardingSchools,RemovestudentfromunfavorablehomeenvironmentSEEDschoolsinDCareno-excuseboardingschoolsLargeachievementgainsEachyeargeneratesgain9percentilepoints(math)&8percentilepoint(read)Gainsabithigherthannon-boardingno-excuseschoolsCostofboardingexceedsvalueofadditionalachievement,12-17,SpendingInequalitiesandPublicPolicy,RelianceonpropertytaxgeneratesspendinginequalitiesacrossschooldistrictsNotionsofequitydevelopedbystatesAdequacy:
MinimumstatewidestandardmustbemetAccessequality:
VotershaveaccesstosameeffectivetaxbaseEquality:
CommonlevelofeducationforalldistrictsMoststatesfocusonreducingspendinginequalities,12-18,FoundationGrants,StategranthigherfordistrictswithlowpropertytaxbasesGrant=Foundationlevel-FoundationtaxrateLocalpropertyvalueperpupilStatesetsfoundationlevelPropertyvalueperpupil=$200,000Table12-4:
Grantindependentoflocaltaxrate,12-19,12-20,Figure12-3:
ResponsetoFoundationGrant,GrantshiftsbudgetlinetorightbyamountofthegrantIfeducationspendingg,grantequivalenttoincreaseinincomeUtility-maximizingpointgoesfromitofIncreasespendingonbotheducation&othergoodsIncomeeffect:
IncreasedesiredquantitiesofallnormalgoodsSchooldistrictcutstaxratetoaccommodatevoter,12-21,12-22,Flypapereffect:
Modelofmedianvoterunderestimatesstimulativeeffectofgrant,Onaverage,about40%ofintergovernmentalgrantspentontargetlocalgoodEducation:
fractionspentisbetween30and65%Largergrantsforlow-spending(lowwealth)districts=decreasespendinginequality,12-23,MatchingGrants:
GuaranteedTaxBase,MatchinggrantincreaseswithamountoflocalrevenueMatchrate=0.25=$0.80oflocalrevenuegenerates$0.20grantLocalcostperdollarofspending=1/(1+m)=1/1.25=$0.80Matching&non-matchinggrantshaveincomeeffectMatchinggrantalsohassubstitutioneffect:
loweropportunitycostoflocalspendingcausessubstitutioninfavorofgrant-supportedgood,12-24,GuaranteedTaxBase(GTB),Grant=Localtaxrate(Guaranteedtaxbaseperpupil-Localtaxbaseperpupil)ExampleGuaranteedbase=$250,000;Localbase=$200,000Taxrate=0.02=Grant=$1,000;Localrevenue=$4,000,foratotalof$5,000Taxrate=0.025=Grant=$1,250;Localrevenue=$5,000,foratotalof$6,250,12-25,12-26,EffectsofEqualizationPlans,StatesrespondingtocourtordersDecreaseinspendinginequalitiesfromlevelingupForlow-spendingdistricts,spendingincreasedby27%Formediumspendingdistricts,spendingincreasedby15%Forhighspendingdistricts,spendingunchangedStatesnotrespondingtocourtorders:
Nosignificantchange,12-27,Michigan:
CompleteControlofK-12Finance,Reformincreasedspendinginruraldistrictsdecreasedspendinginpoorurbanareas&richsuburbanareasReformincreasedachievementwherespendingincreasedsmallerclasssizehigherteachsalariesandproductivity,12-28,Centralcitiesandequalizationplans,Urbanschools:
largenumberoflow-incomestudentsHighercostforsecurity,family/healthcrisesWeakacademicpreparation,limitedEnglishskillsEqualizationprograms:
relativelysmallincreaseinfundingordecreaseinfunding,12-29,EducationinCentralCities,RelativelylowachievementfromunfavorablehomeenvironmentandpeersPolicy:
ImprovequalityofteachersPolicy:
DecreaseclasssizePolicy:
Improvelearningenvironment?
12-30,
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