Genetic Engineering From Wikipedia基因工程.docx
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Genetic Engineering From Wikipedia基因工程.docx
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GeneticEngineeringFromWikipedia基因工程
GeneticEngineeringFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
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Foranon-technicalintroductiontothetopic,seeIntroductiontogenetics.ForthesongbyOrchestralManoeuvresintheDark,seeGeneticEngineering(song).
Partofaserieson
Genetics
Keycomponents
ChromosomeDNARNA
GenomeHeredityMutation
NucleotideVariation
OutlineIndexTemplateGlossary
Historyandtopics
IntroductionHistory
Evolution(molecular)
Populationgenetics
Mendelianinheritance
Quantitativegenetics
Moleculargenetics
Research
DNAsequencing
Geneticengineering
Genomics(Templatetemplate)
Medicalgenetics
Branchesofgenetics
Personalizedmedicine
Personalizedmedicine
Biologyportal
Molecularandcellularbiologyportal
vte
Geneticengineering,alsocalledgeneticmodification,isthedirectmanipulationofanorganism'sgenomeusingbiotechnology.NewDNAmaybeinsertedinthehostgenomebyfirstisolatingandcopyingthegeneticmaterialofinterestusingmolecularcloningmethodstogenerateaDNAsequence,orbysynthesizingtheDNA,andtheninsertingthisconstructintothehostorganism.Genesmayberemoved,or"knockedout",usinganuclease.Genetargetingisadifferenttechniquethatuseshomologousrecombinationtochangeanendogenousgene,andcanbeusedtodeleteagene,removeexons,addagene,orintroducepointmutations.
Anorganismthatisgeneratedthroughgeneticengineeringisconsideredtobeageneticallymodifiedorganism(GMO).ThefirstGMOswerebacteriageneratedin1973andGMmicein1974.Insulin-producingbacteriawerecommercializedin1982andgeneticallymodifiedfoodhasbeensoldsince1994.Glofish,thefirstGMOdesignedasapet,wasfirstsoldintheUnitedStatesDecemberin2003.[1]
Geneticengineeringtechniqueshavebeenappliedinnumerousfieldsincludingresearch,agriculture,industrialbiotechnology,andmedicine.EnzymesusedinlaundrydetergentandmedicinessuchasinsulinandhumangrowthhormonearenowmanufacturedinGMcells,experimentalGMcelllinesandGManimalssuchasmiceorzebrafisharebeingusedforresearchpurposes,andgeneticallymodifiedcropshavebeencommercialized.
IUPACdefinition
Processofinsertingnewgeneticinformationintoexistingcellsinorderto
modifyaspecificorganismforthepurposeofchangingitscharacteristics.
Note:
Adaptedfromref.[2][3]
Contents[hide]
1Definition
2Geneticallymodifiedorganisms
3History
4Process
4.1Transformation
4.2Genomeediting
5Applications
5.1Medicine
5.1.1Manufacturing
5.1.2Research
5.1.3Genetherapy
5.2Research
5.3Industrial
5.3.1Experimental,labscaleindustrialapplications
5.4Agriculture
5.5BioArtandentertainment
6Regulation
7Controversy
8Seealso
9References
10Furtherreading
11Externallinks
Definition[edit]
Comparisonofconventionalplantbreedingwithtransgenicandcisgenicgeneticmodification.
Geneticengineeringaltersthegeneticmake-upofanorganismusingtechniquesthatremoveheritablematerialorthatintroduceDNApreparedoutsidetheorganismeitherdirectlyintothehostorintoacellthatisthenfusedorhybridizedwiththehost.[4]Thisinvolvesusingrecombinantnucleicacid(DNAorRNA)techniquestoformnewcombinationsofheritablegeneticmaterialfollowedbytheincorporationofthatmaterialeitherindirectlythroughavectorsystemordirectlythroughmicro-injection,macro-injectionandmicro-encapsulationtechniques.
Geneticengineeringdoesnotnormallyincludetraditionalanimalandplantbreeding,invitrofertilisation,inductionofpolyploidy,mutagenesisandcellfusiontechniquesthatdonotuserecombinantnucleicacidsorageneticallymodifiedorganismintheprocess.[4]HowevertheEuropeanCommissionhasalsodefinedgeneticengineeringbroadlyasincludingselectivebreedingandothermeansofartificialselection.[5]Cloningandstemcellresearch,althoughnotconsideredgeneticengineering,[6]arecloselyrelatedandgeneticengineeringcanbeusedwithinthem.[7]Syntheticbiologyisanemergingdisciplinethattakesgeneticengineeringastepfurtherbyintroducingartificiallysynthesizedmaterialfromrawmaterialsintoanorganism.[8]
Ifgeneticmaterialfromanotherspeciesisaddedtothehost,theresultingorganismiscalledtransgenic.Ifgeneticmaterialfromthesamespeciesoraspeciesthatcannaturallybreedwiththehostisusedtheresultingorganismiscalledcisgenic.[9]Geneticengineeringcanalsobeusedtoremovegeneticmaterialfromthetargetorganism,creatingageneknockoutorganism.[10]InEuropegeneticmodificationissynonymouswithgeneticengineeringwhilewithintheUnitedStatesofAmericaitcanalsorefertoconventionalbreedingmethods.[11][12]TheCanadianregulatorysystemisbasedonwhetheraproducthasnovelfeaturesregardlessofmethodoforigin.Inotherwords,aproductisregulatedasgeneticallymodifiedifitcarriessometraitnotpreviouslyfoundinthespecieswhetheritwasgeneratedusingtraditionalbreedingmethods(e.g.,selectivebreeding,cellfusion,mutationbreeding)orgeneticengineering.[13][14][15]Withinthescientificcommunity,thetermgeneticengineeringisnotcommonlyused;morespecifictermssuchastransgenicarepreferred.
Geneticallymodifiedorganisms[edit]
Mainarticle:
Geneticallymodifiedorganism
Plants,animalsormicroorganismsthathavechangedthroughgeneticengineeringaretermedgeneticallymodifiedorganismsorGMOs.[16]Bacteriawerethefirstorganismstobegeneticallymodified.PlasmidDNAcontainingnewgenescanbeinsertedintothebacterialcellandthebacteriawillthenexpressthosegenes.Thesegenescancodeformedicinesorenzymesthatprocessfoodandothersubstrates.[17][18]Plantshavebeenmodifiedforinsectprotection,herbicideresistance,virusresistance,enhancednutrition,tolerancetoenvironmentalpressuresandtheproductionofediblevaccines.[19]MostcommercialisedGMO'sareinsectresistantand/orherbicidetolerantcropplants.[20]Geneticallymodifiedanimalshavebeenusedforresearch,modelanimalsandtheproductionofagriculturalorpharmaceuticalproducts.Theyincludeanimalswithgenesknockedout,increasedsusceptibilitytodisease,hormonesforextragrowthandtheabilitytoexpressproteinsintheirmilk.[21]
History[edit]
Mainarticle:
Historyofgeneticengineering
Humanshavealteredthegenomesofspeciesforthousandsofyearsthroughselectivebreeding,orartificialselection[22]:
1[23]:
1ascontrastedwithnaturalselection,andmorerecentlythroughmutagenesis.GeneticengineeringasthedirectmanipulationofDNAbyhumansoutsidebreedingandmutationshasonlyexistedsincethe1970s.Theterm"geneticengineering"wasfirstcoinedbyJackWilliamsoninhissciencefictionnovelDragon'sIsland,publishedin1951,[24]oneyearbeforeDNA'sroleinhereditywasconfirmedbyAlfredHersheyandMarthaChase,[25]andtwoyearsbeforeJamesWatsonandFrancisCrickshowedthattheDNAmoleculehasadouble-helixstructure.
In1974RudolfJaenischcreatedthefirstGManimal.
In1972PaulBergcreatedthefirstrecombinantDNAmoleculesbycombiningDNAfromthemonkeyvirusSV40withthatofthelambdavirus.[26]In1973HerbertBoyerandStanleyCohencreatedthefirsttransgenicorganismbyinsertingantibioticresistancegenesintotheplasmidofanE.colibacterium.[27][28]AyearlaterRudolfJaenischcreatedatransgenicmousebyintroducingforeignDNAintoitsembryo,makingittheworld’sfirsttransgenicanimal.[29]Theseachievementsledtoconcernsinthescientificcommunityaboutpotentialrisksfromgeneticengineering,whichwerefirstdiscussedindepthattheAsilomarConferencein1975.OneofthemainrecommendationsfromthismeetingwasthatgovernmentoversightofrecombinantDNAresearchshouldbeestablisheduntilthetechnologywasdeemedsafe.[30][31]
In1976Genentech,thefirstgeneticengineeringcompany,wasfoundedbyHerbertBoyerandRobertSwansonandayearlaterthecompanyproducedahumanprotein(somatostatin)inE.coli.Genentechannouncedtheproductionofgeneticallyengineeredhumaninsulinin1978.[32]In1980,theU.S.SupremeCourtintheDiamondv.Chakrabartycaseruledthatgeneticallyalteredlifecouldbepatented.[33]Theinsulinproducedbybacteria,brandedhumulin,wasapprovedforreleasebytheFoodandDrugAdministrationin1982.[34]
Inthe1970sgraduatestudentStevenLindowoftheUniversityofWisconsin–MadisonwithD.C.ArnyandC.UpperfoundabacteriumheidentifiedasP.syringaethatplayedaroleinicenucleationandin1977,hediscoveredamutantice-minusstrain.Later,hesuccessfullycreatedarecombinantice-minusstrain.[35]In1983,abiotechcompany,AdvancedGeneticSciences(AGS)appliedforU.S.governmentauthorizationtoperformfieldtestswiththeice-minusstrainofP.syringaetoprotectcropsfromfrost,butenvironmentalgroupsandprotestorsdelayedthefieldtestsforfouryearswithlegalchallenges.[36]In1987,theice-minusstrainofP.syringaebecamethefirstgeneticallymodifiedorganism(GMO)tobereleasedintotheenvironment[37]whenastrawberryfieldandapotatofieldinCaliforniaweresprayedwithit.[38]Bothtestfieldswereattackedbyactivistgroupsthenightbeforethetestsoccurred:
"Theworld'sfirsttrialsiteattractedtheworld'sfirstfieldtrasher".[37]
ThefirstfieldtrialsofgeneticallyengineeredplantsoccurredinFranceandtheUSAin1986,tobaccoplantswereengineeredtoberesistanttoherbicides.[39]ThePeople’sRepublicofChinawasthefirstcountrytocommercializetransgenicplants,introducingavirus-resistanttobaccoin19
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