语言学 Syntax.docx
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语言学 Syntax.docx
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语言学Syntax
Chapter5:
Syntax
LearningObjectives
⏹I.Syntaxthefield
⏹II.TheTraditionalApproach
⏹III.TheStructuralistApproach
⏹IV.TheGenerativeApproach
⏹V.TheSystemicFunctionalApproach
⏹VI.TheTextualApproach
I.DefiningSyntax
⏹ThewordcomesfromAncientGreek-syn-,"together",andtáxis,"arrangement")
⏹
Thedefinition:
❑Thestudyoftheinternalstructureofsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
⏹Whatisgrammar?
❑morphology+syntax=grammar
Autonomyofsyntax
⏹Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.
⏹Thisisaveryinterestingsentence,becauseitshowsthatsyntaxcanbeseparatedfromsemantics—thatformcanbeseparatedfrommeaning.Thesentencedoesn’tseemtomeananythingcoherent,butitsoundslikeanEnglishsentence.
——HowardLasnik,
TheHumanLanguage
Classificationofsentences
⏹E.g.1Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.
⏹E.g.2*Furiouslysleepideasgreencolorless.
⏹E.g.3Hewalkedquickly.
Criteria:
⏹1.Conformstothegrammaticalrulesofaspecificlanguageornot;(Grammaticality/well-formedness)
⏹2.Conformstotheworldlycommonsenseknowledge.
Sentenceclassification
II.TheTraditionalApproach
⏹ASyntacticCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.
⏹Whenwordsaregroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,theyarecalledsyntacticcategories.
1.LexicalCategories
⏹Ingrammar,alexicalcategory(alsowordclass,lexicalclass,orintraditionalgrammarpartofspeech)isalinguisticcategoryofwords,ormorepreciselylexicalitems.
⏹Majorlexicalcategories
❑Noun,Verb,Adjective,Adverb,Preposition
⏹Minorlexicalcategories
❑Determiner,Auxiliary,Conjunction,Infinitive,Negative
2.PhrasalCategories
⏹Wordlevelcategoriescanbeextendedtophrasalcategorieswithheads:
3.SyntacticFunctions
⏹Subject:
innominativecase,doeroftheaction.
❑E.g.Sheslappedhim.
❑E.g.Hewasslappedbyher.
⏹Grammaticalsubjectvs.logicalsubject
⏹Object:
accusativecase,receiverorgoalofanaction.
⏹E.g.Hewasslappedbyher.
⏹E.g.Igavemysisteradoll.
Ind.Obj.Dir.Obj.
⏹E.g.Igaveadolltomysister.
Dir.Obj.Ind.Obj.
Sentencedivision
⏹Binaryanalysis:
❑Predicate+Subject=Sentence
⏹E.g.Themaniseatingdinner.
⏹E.g.Johnbrokethedoor.
⏹E.g.Alicemustbeoutofhermind.
⏹Predicator:
verbincludedinapredicate
4.SyntacticFeatures
5.Sentencetypes:
traditionalapproach
simple
Sentencecomplex
non-simple
compound
BasicsentencetypesbyBolinger
⏹1.Motherfell.
⏹2.Motherisyoung.
⏹3.MotherlovesDad.
⏹4.MotherfedDadbreakfast.
⏹5.Thereistime.
⏹Question:
Whataretheabstractgrammaticalrepresentations?
Bolinger’sidea
⏹Motherfell.(Nominal+intransitiveverbal)
⏹Motherisyoung.(Nominal+copula+complement)
⏹MotherlovesDad.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal)
⏹MotherfedDadbreakfast.(Nominal+transitiveverbal+nominal+nominal)
⏹Thereistime.(There+existential+nominal)
Basicsentencetypes:
Quirk
⏹
Sevensentencetypes:
❑SVC
❑SVA
❑SV
❑SVO
❑SVOC
❑SVOA
❑SVOO
Quirk’sidea
⏹SVCMaryiskind./anurse.
⏹SVA Maryishere./inthehouse.
⏹SV Thechildislaughing.
⏹SVO Somebodycaughttheball.
⏹SVOC Wehaveprovedhimwrong./afool.
⏹SVOA Iputtheplateonthetable.
⏹SVOO Shegivesmeexpensivepresents.
III.TheStructuralistApproach
1.SyntacticRelations
⏹Syntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds:
❑relationsofposition
❑relationsofsubstitutability
❑relationsofco-occurrence
RelationsofPosition
⏹Alllanguageshaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause.
⏹Theboykickedtheball
NP1NP2
SubjectObject
⏹Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.
⏹Question:
Ifwordorderisnotfollowed,whatwouldhappen?
❑ungrammaticalornonsensical
❑semanticchange
⏹Theboykickedtheball
❑*Boytheballkickedthe
❑*Theballkickedtheboy
⏹Theteachersawthestudents.
⏹Thestudentssawtheteacher.
⏹PositionalrelationsareamanifestationofoneaspectofSyntagmaticRelationsobservedbyF.deSaussure.
⏹TheyarealsocalledHorizontalRelationsorsimplyChainRelations.
⏹Wordorderisamongthethreebasicways(wordorder,geneticandarealclassifications)toclassifylanguagesintheworld:
❑SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.
❑EnglishbelongstoSVOtype,thoughthisdoesnotmeanthatSVOistheonlypossiblewordorder.
RelationofSubstitutability
⏹The ________smiled.
men
boys
girls
monkeys
⏹TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.
⏹Italsoreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.
strongman
❑Thetallestboysmiles.
prettygirl
yesterday.
❑Hewenttherelastweek.
thedaybefore.
⏹ThisisalsocalledAssociativeRelationsbySaussure,andParadigmaticRelationsbyHjemslev.
❑Tomakeitmoreunderstandable,theyarecalledVerticalRelationsorChoiceRelations.
RelationofCo-occurrence
⏹Wordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.
⏹Whataretheco-occurredwordsetsfornominalphrases?
❑precededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)
❑followedbyaverbalphrase.
⏹Relationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.
2.ConstituentsandPhraseStructure
⏹Constituentisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction:
❑thegirl(NP)
❑atetheapple(VP)
❑thegirlatetheapple(S)
ImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)byBloomfield
PhraseStructure
Treediagram
Bracketing
⏹Bracketingisnotascommoninuse,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituent/phrasestructureofagrammaticalunit.
(((The)(girl)) ((ate) ((the)(apple))))
ComparingICanalysisandPSanalysis
⏹beautifulgirl’sdress
“Theycanfish”isambiguous
⏹ICanalysis
⏹Whatarethepossiblephrasestructuretrees?
3.EndocentricandExocentricConstructions
⏹Endocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.
⏹Whichconstructionsareendocentric?
❑nounphrases
❑Intransitiveverbphrases
❑adjectivephrases
⏹Exocentricconstructionreferstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”.
⏹Whichconstructionsareexocentric?
❑basicsentence
❑prepositionalphrase
❑predicate(verb+object)construction
❑connective(be+complement)construction
⏹Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)
⏹Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)
⏹Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)
⏹Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision,theconnectiveconstructionnolongerexists.)
4.CoordinationandSubordination
⏹Constructionscanalsobecategorizedintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:
CoordinationandSubordination
Coordination
⏹Coordination:
❑groupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.
❑Coordinatedconstituentshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally
⏹CoordinationofNPs:
❑[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]
⏹CoordinationofVPs:
❑[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]
⏹CoordinationofPPs:
❑[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]
⏹CoordinationofAPs:
❑[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]
⏹CoordinationofSs:
❑[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].
Subordination
⏹Subordination:
referstotheprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.
❑Thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifythehead.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers.
⏹two dogs
Head
⏹(Mybrother)candrink(wine).
Head
⏹Swimminginthelake(isfun).
Head
⏹(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondendurance.
Head
Subordinateclauses
⏹Clausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents.Therearethreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:
❑complementclauses
❑adjunct(oradverbial)clauses
❑relativeclauses
⏹1.Johnbelieves[thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman].(complementclause)
⏹2.Elizabethopenedherpresents[beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner].(adverbialclause)
⏹3.Thewoman[thatIlove]ismovingtothesouth.(relativeclause)
IV.TheGenerativeApproach
⏹PhraseStructureRules(PSRules)
❑smile
❑thesmile
❑thebeautifulsmile
❑thebeautifulsmiletome
WhataboutthepossibleVPstructure?
⏹laugh
⏹playinthegarden
⏹oftenplayinthegarden
⏹oftenhappilyplayinthegarden(happily)
TheAPstructure?
⏹polite
⏹verypolite
⏹verypolitetoyou
ThePPstructure?
⏹about
⏹mainlyabout
⏹mainlyaboutthestory
Sentencestructure?
⏹Thewindblows.
⏹Thecatatethefish.
⏹Themancamewithastick.
Exercises:
Pleasedrawthephrasestructure
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