语言学教程第八章知识点.docx
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语言学教程第八章知识点.docx
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语言学教程第八章知识点
ChapterEight
Pragmatics
⏹Definition
⏹Pragmaticsisgenerallythestudyofnaturallanguageunderstanding,andspecificallythestudyofhowcontextinfluencestheinterpretationofmeanings.Inanotherworditisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweensymbolsandtheirinterpreters.
⏹In1937,theAmericanphilosopherCharlesWilliamMorrisintroducedtheword“Pragmatics”intoliterature.
⏹莫里斯(C.Morris)和卡耐基(R.carnap)在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说:
⏹句法学(符号关系学)Syntactics是研究符号与符号之间的关系;语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系;语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
⏹TeachingFocus
⏹1.Somebasicnotions
⏹2.Speechacttheory
⏹3.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicature
⏹4.Post-GriceanDevelopments
⏹1.Somebasicnotions
⏹1.1Thedefinitionofpragmatics
⏹1.2Pragmaticsandsemantics
⏹1.3Context
⏹1.4Sentenceandutterance
⏹1.1Thedefinitionofpragmatics
⏹Variousdefinitions:
⏹Thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.
⏹Thestudyoflanguageinuse.
⏹Thestudyofmeaningincontext.
⏹Thestudyofspeakers’meaning,
utterancemeaning,
&contextualmeaning.
⏹1.2Pragmaticsandsemantics
⏹Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudythemeaningoflanguage.
⏹没有第一层次的研究,很难进行第二层次的研究
⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义
⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究
⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究
⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actualrealizationWhatessentiallydistinguishesthemiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.
⏹Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics(decontextualized);
⏹Ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.(contextualized)
⏹Semantics&Pragmatics
⏹Peterboughtacar.
⏹ItwasPeterwhoboughtacar.
⏹ItwasacarthatPeterbought.
⏹Whatpeterboughtwasacar.
⏹句法学:
说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果
⏹语义学:
这些句子都是同义的。
⏹语用学:
这些句子都是不同的。
恭喜你
⏹语音学家:
分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调。
⏹句法学家:
指出这是一个无主语的祈使句,有一个动词加一个代词组成。
⏹语义学家:
这句话的意思:
向某个人表示祝贺。
⏹语用学家:
将结合具体语境,考虑说话人是谁,“你”又是谁,说话人在怎样的情况下向“你”道喜,他是真的道喜,还是挖苦嘲讽,甚至是泄愤?
⏹1.3Context
⏹Contextisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledge:
⏹Aboutthelanguagetheyuse;
⏹Aboutwhathasbeensaidbefore;
⏹Abouttheworldingeneral;
⏹Aboutthespecificsituation;
⏹Abouteachother.
⏹Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.
⏹Let’sseehowitdeterminesthehearer’sinterpretation.
⏹1.4Sentenceandutterance
⏹Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.
⏹Ifasentenceisactuallyutteredorusedinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).
⏹Sentence→abstractanddecontextualized
⏹Utterance→concreteandcontext-dependent
⏹Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.
⏹2.SpeechActTheory
⏹Britishphilosopher,JohnAustin(1911-1960)
⏹HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)
⏹speechacts:
actionsperformedviautterances
⏹Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.
⏹2.1Constativesvs.performatives
⏹2.2Atheoryofillocutionaryact
⏹2.1Constativesvs.performatives
⏹Constatives:
utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,eg:
⏹IgototheparkeverySunday.
⏹IteachEnglish.
⏹Performatives:
utteranceswhichareusedtoperformacts,donotdescribeorreportanythingatall;theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.
⏹Performativeverbs:
name,bet,etc.
⏹Ido.
⏹InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.
⏹Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.
⏹Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.
⏹Ideclarethemeetingopen.
⏹Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.
⏹Felicityconditions合适条件
⏹Thereareconditionsforperformativestomeettobeappropriateorfelicitous.Austinsuggestedthefollowingconditions:
⏹A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,
⏹(ii)Therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancemustbeappropriate.
⏹B.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.
⏹C.(i)Therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,
⏹(ii)mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.
⏹Featuresofperformatives
⏹Firstpersonsingularsubject
⏹Simplepresenttense
⏹Indicativemood陈述语气
⏹Activevoice
⏹Performativeverbs
⏹Pleaseseethefollowingutterances,tellwhethertheyareconstativesorperformatives.
⏹Iwillcomeinafewseconds.
⏹Iwasreadinganovellastnight.
⏹Youareresponsibleforthisaccident.
⏹Heisinchargeofourdepartment.
⏹Conclusions:
⏹Thedistinctionbetweenconstatives&performativescannotbemaintained.
⏹Allsentencescanbeusedtodothings.
⏹Speechacttheory:
weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.
⏹2.2Atheoryofillocutionaryact
⏹Austingaveuphisinitialdistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformativesandsetupanothermodeltoexplainthewayactswereperformedbymeansoflanguage.
⏹Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:
locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.
⏹Therefore,speechactscanbeanalyzedon3levels.
⏹Alocutionaryact→theactofsayingsomethinginthefullsenseof“say”.
⏹SayingX.
⏹Anillocutionaryact→anactperformedinsayingsomething.Tosaysthistodosth.
⏹InsayingX,IwasdoingY.
⏹Insaying“Iwillcometomorrow”,Iwasmakingapromise.
⏹Aperlocutionaryact→theactpreformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,theconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.
⏹BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.
⏹Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.
⏹Trytoanalyzethefollowingutterances:
⏹Shoother!
⏹Itseemsthatthecomputerisoutofwork.
⏹Amongthethreeacts,thelocutioaryactiswhatlinguistshavebeenstudyingallalong.
⏹Theperlocutionaryactinvolvesmanypsychologicalandsocialfactors,ofwhichwearestillmoreorlessinthedark.
⏹SotheillocutionaryactiswhatAustinreallydrivingat.
⏹Inthissense,speechacttheoryisinfactatheoryoftheillocutionaryact.
⏹3.Thetheoryofconversationalimplicature
⏹Peopledonotusuallysaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.
⏹Oxfordphilosopher,HerbertPaulGrice(1913-1988)
⏹LogicandConversationin1975
⏹3.1CooperativePrinciple
⏹3.2Conversationalimplicature
⏹3.1CooperativePrinciple
⏹Grice’stheoryisanattemptatexplaininghowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.
⏹Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.
⏹ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).
⏹Makeyourcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.
⏹Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:
⏹MaximofQuality
⏹Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.
⏹Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence.
⏹MaximofQuantity
⏹Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).
⏹Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.
⏹MaximofRelation
⏹Berelative.
⏹MaximofManner
⏹Beperspicuous.
⏹Avoidobscurityofexpression.
⏹Avoidambiguity.
⏹Bebrief.
⏹Beorderly.
⏹3.2Conversationalimplicature
⏹CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.
⏹PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.
⏹However,CPisoftenviolated.
⏹SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.
⏹ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.
⏹ViolationoftheMaxims
⏹Wetrytosaythingswhicharetrue,relevant,aswellasinformativeenough,andinaclearmanner.Hearerswillalsotrytointerpretinthisway.
⏹Inrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.
⏹Liesdonothaveimplicaturesproper,sincethebasisforaccurateinterpretationislost.
⏹Violationofmaximofquantity
⏹“Wariswar.”
⏹“Girlsaregirls.”
----A:
WhenisSusan’sfarewellparty?
----B:
Sometimenextmonth.
⏹ViolationofMaximofquality
----Heismadeofiron.
----A:
wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?
----B:
I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltonight.
⏹Violationofmaximofrelation
----A:
Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?
----B:
Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.
----A:
Thehostessisanawfulbore.
----B:
Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?
⏹Violationofmaximofmanner
----A:
Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?
----B:
Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
----Lovethatnevertoldcanbe.
----A:
MissXsang“Homesweethome”
----B:
MissXproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondedcloselywiththescoreof“Homesweethome”.
⏹CharacteristicsofImplicature
⏹Calculability
⏹Cancellability
⏹Non-detachability
⏹Non-conventio
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