权威杂志《经济学人》英文原版整理完全版.docx
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权威杂志《经济学人》英文原版整理完全版.docx
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权威杂志《经济学人》英文原版整理完全版
DigestOfThe.Economist.2006(8-9)
Themismeasureofwoman
Menandwomenthinkdifferently.Butnotthatdifferently
INTHE1970stherewasafadforgivingdollstobabyboysandfire-enginestobabygirls.Theideawasthatdifferencesinbehaviourbetweenthesexesweresolelytheresultofupbringing:
cultureturnedwomenintoironers,knittersandchatterboxes,andmenintohammerers,drillersandsilenttypes.Switchingtoyswouldputanendtosexualsorting.Today,itisclearwhyitdidnot.Whenboysandgirlsareborn,theyarealreadydifferent,andtheyfavourdifferenttoysfromthebeginning.
Thatboysandgirls—andmenandwomen—areprogrammedbyevolutiontobehavedifferentlyfromoneanotherisnowwidelyaccepted.Surely,noonetodaywouldthinkofdoingwhatJohnMoney,ofJohnsHopkinsUniversity,didin1967:
amputatingthegenitaliaofaboywhohadsufferedabotchedcircumcision,andadvisingtheparentstobringhimupasagirl.Theexperimentdidn'twork,andtheconsequencesweretragic.Butwhichofthedifferencesbetweenthesexesare“biological〞,inthesensethattheyhavebeenhonedbyevolution,andwhichare“cultural〞or“environmental〞andmightmoreeasilybealteredbychangedcircumstances,isstillfiercelydebated.
ThesensitivityofthequestionwasshownlastyearbyafuroreatHarvardUniversity.LarrySummers,thenHarvard'spresident,causedastormwhenhesuggestedthatinnateabilitycouldbeanimportantreasonwhythereweresofewwomeninthetoppositionsinmathematics,engineeringandthephysicalsciences.
Evenasapropositionfordiscussion,thisisunacceptabletosome.Butbiologicalexplanationsofhumanbehaviouraremakingacomebackasthegenerationofacademicsthatfearedthemasacovertwayofjustifyingeugenics,orofthwartingMarxistutopianism,isretiring.Thesuccessofneo-Darwinismhasprovidedanintellectualunderpinningfordiscussionaboutwhysomedifferencesbetweenthesexesmightbeinnate.Andnewscanningtechniqueshaveenabledresearcherstoexaminethebrain'sinteriorwhileitisworking,showingthatmaleandfemalebrainsdo,atonelevel,operatedifferently.Theresults,however,donotalwayssupportpastclichésaboutwhatthedifferencesinquestionactuallyare.
Differencesinbehaviourbetweenthesexesmust,insomeway,bereflectionsofsystematicdifferencesbetweenthebrainsofmalesandfemales.Suchdifferencescertainlyexist,butdrawinginferencesfromthemisnotaseasyasitmayappear.
Forastart,men'sbrainsareabout9%largerthanthoseofwomen.Thatusedtobecitedasevidenceofmen'ssupposedlygreaterintelligence.Actually,thedifferenceislargely(andprobablycompletely)explainedbythefactthatmenarebiggerthanwomen.Inrecentyears,moredetailedexaminationhasrefinedthepicture.Femalebrainshaveahigherpercentageofgreymatter(themanifestation,enbloc,ofthecentralbodiesofnervecells),andthusalowerpercentageofwhitematter(themanifestationofthelong,thinfilamentsthatconnectnervecellstogether),thanmalebrains.That,plusthefactthatinsomeregionsofthefemalebrain,nervecellsarepackedmoredenselythaninmen,meansthatthenumberofnervecellsinmaleandfemalebrainsmay
besimilar.
Oddly,though,themainconnectionbetweenthetwohemispheresofthebrain,whichisknownasthecorpuscallosumandismadeofwhitematter,isproportionatelysmallerinmenthanwomen.Thismayexplainwhymenuseonlyonesideofthebraintoprocesssomeproblemsforwhichwomenemploybothsides.
ThesedifferencesinstructureandwiringdonotappeartohaveanyinfluenceonintelligenceasmeasuredbyIQtests.Itdoes,however,seemthatthesexescarryoutthesetestsindifferentways.Inoneexample,wheremenandwomenperformequallywellinatestthatasksthemtoworkoutwhethernonsensewordsrhyme,brainscanningshowsthatwomenuseareasonboththerightandtheleftsidesofthebraintoaccomplishthetask.Men,bycontrast,useonlyareasontheleftside.Thereisalsoacorrelationbetweenmathematicalreasoningandtemporal-lobeactivityinmen—butnoneinwomen.Moregenerally,menseemtorelymoreontheirgreymatterfortheirIQ,whereaswomenrelymoreontheirwhitematter.
Americanexceptionalism
Theworld'sbiggestinsurancemarketistoosplintered
KANSASCITY,Missouri,isknownmoreforitshistoricalroleasacattletownthanasafinancialhub.Butitistothismidwesterncity,America's26thlargest,thatregulatorsandinsuranceexecutivesfromaroundtheglobeheadwhentheywanttomakesenseoftheworld'slargest—andoneofitsweirdest—insurancemarkets.
ForitisinKansasCitythattheNationalAssociationofInsuranceCommissioners(NAIC)ishoused.Itoverseesamarketaccountingforone-thirdofpremiumswrittenworldwide.OutsideKansasCity,themarketbecomesaregulatoryfree-for-all.EachofAmerica's50states,plustheDistrictofColombia,governsitsinsuranceindustryinitsownway.
Inanincreasinglyglobalinsurancemarket,America'sstate-basedsystemiscomingunderstrongpressuretoreform.InsurancehaschangeddramaticallysincetheNAICwassetupin1871,withgrowingsophisticationinunderwritingandriskmanagement.PremiumsinAmericahaveballoonedto$1.1trillionandmarketpowerisincreasinglyconcentratedinthehandsofbigplayers(someofthemforeign-owned)thatarepushingforanoverhaulofthestate-basedsystem.“It'sanextremelyexpensiveandByzantineprocess,〞saysBobHartwig,aneconomistwiththeInsuranceInformationInstitute,aresearchgroup.
Thoughafiercelypoliticalissue,congressionalsupportforsimplifyingthesystemisgainingground.BothhousesofCongressarelookingatproposalstochangethestate-basedsystem.Biginsurersfavouraversionthatwouldimplementanoptionalfederalcharterallowingthemtobypassthestate-bystateregulatoryprocessiftheychoose.Asimilarsystemalreadyexistsforbanks.
Proponentsofthechangesseemoreefficiency,anabilitytorolloutproductsmorequicklynationallyand,ultimately,betterofferingsforconsumersasaresult.Yetsomeconsumergroupsfavourstate-basedregulation.Theybelieveitkeepspremiumslowerthantheyotherwisewouldbe.PremiumsasapercentageofgrossoutputarelowerinAmericathaninseveralothercountries.
Thepoliticalheadwindsarestrong:
insurancecommissionersareelectedofficialsinsomestates(California,forinstance)andappointedbythegovernorinothers.Theindustryisalsosplit:
mostofthecountry's4,500insurersaresmall,andmanyofthemhaveclosetieswithstate-basedregulators,whosesurvivaltheysupport.Buteventheseforcesmayeventuallybeovercome.
ElsewhereintheindustryinAmerica,thereareothercallsforreform.Inabackdoorformofprotectionism,Americanreinsurancefirmshavelongbenefitedfromaregulationthatrequiresforeignreinsurerswritingcross-borderbusinessintoAmericatopostmorecollateralthantheydo.“IfyouoperateoutsidethebordersoftheUS,theydon'ttrustyouoneinch,〞lamentsJulianJames,headofinternationalbusinessatLloyd'sofLondon,whichwrites38%ofitsbusinessinAmerica.
Thecollateralrequirementwasestablishedbecauseofworriesaboutregulatorystandardsabroad,andthefinancialstrengthofglobalreinsurers.Todayregulatorystandardshavebeentightenedinmanyforeignmarkets.AmajorityofAmerica'sreinsurancecovernowcomesfromfirmsbasedabroad,includingmanythathavesetupoffshoreinBermuda(fortaxreasons)primarilytoserveAmerica.
Toohottohandle
Dell'sbatteryrecallrevealsthetechnologyindustry'svulnerabilities
THEREisthenailtest,inwhichateamofengineersdrivesalargemetalnailthroughabatterycelltoseeifitexplodes.Inanothertrial,laboratorytechniciansbakethebatteriesinanoventosimulatetheeffectsofadigitaldeviceleftinaclosedcaronaswelteringday—tocheckthereactionofthechemicalsinside.Onproductionruns,randombatchesofbatteriesaretestedfortemperature,efficiency,energydensityandoutput.
Buttherigorousprocessesthatgointomakingsophisticated,rechargeablebatteries—theheartofbillionsofelectronicgadgetsaroundtheworld—werenotenough.OnAugust14thDell,acomputercompany,saiditwouldreplace4.1mlithium-ionbatteriesmadebySony,aconsumer-electronicsfirm,inlaptopcomputerssoldbetween2004andlastmonth.Ahandfulofcustomershadreportedthebatteriesoverheating,catchingfireandevenexploding—includingonecelebratedcaseataconferencethisyearin
Japan,whichwascapturedonfilmandpassedaroundtheinternet.Thecosttothetwocompaniesisexpectedtobebetween$200mand$400m.
Insomeways,Dellisavictimofitssuccess.Thecompanywasapioneerinturningthepersonalcomputerintoacommodity,whichmeantsqueezingsupplierstothelastpenny,usingeconomiesofscalebyplacinghugeorders,andrunningefficientsupplychainswithlittleroomforerror.Itallcreatedavolatileenvironmentinwhichmistakescanhavegraveeffects.
Sincelithium-ionbatterieswereintroducedin1991,theircapacitytooverheatandburstintoflamehasbeenwellknown.Indeed,in2004Americabannedthemascargoonpassengerplanes,asafirehazard.Butthelatestproblemsseemtohavearisenbecauseofthemanufacturingprocess,whichdemandsperfection.“Ifthereisevenanano-sizedparticleofdust,asmallmetalshardorwatercondensationthatgetsintothebatterycell,itcanoverheatandexplode,〞saysSaraBradfordofFrost&Sullivan,aconsultancy.Astheenergyneedsofdeviceshavegrownrapidly,sohavethedemandsonbatteries.
Thecomputingindustry'scultureisal
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