syntactic terms.docx
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syntactic terms.docx
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syntacticterms
FromAndrewRadford,MinimalistSyntax:
ExploringthestructureofEnglish(CambridgeUniversityPress,2004).©AndrewRadford2003.
GlossaryandListofAbbreviations
Boldprintisusedtoindicatetechnicalterms,andtocross-refertoentrieselsewhereintheglossary.Abbreviationsusedhereare:
ch.=chapter;§=sectionnumber;ex.=exercise.
A:
SeeAdjective,A-head,A-position,Binding.
AAE:
AfricanAmericanEnglish
A-bar:
AnA-barpositionisapositionwhichcanbeoccupiedbyargumentsoradjunctsalike.Forexample,thespecifierpositionwithinCPissaidtobeanA-barpositionbecauseitcancontainnotonlyanargumentliketheitalicisedwh-phrasein'Whichcardidhefix?
'butalsoanadjunctliketheitalicisedadverbialphrasein'Howdidhefixthecar?
'A-barmovementisamovementoperation(likewh-movement)whichmovesanargumentoradjunctexpressiontoanA-barposition.OnA-barhead,seeA-head.
Acc(usative):
SeeCase.
ACP:
SeeAttractClosestPrinciple.
Acquisition:
Theprocessbywhichpeopleacquiretheirfirstlanguage(=L1acquisition)orasecondlanguagewhichisnottheirmothertongue(=L2acquisition).
Active:
Acontrastistraditionallydrawnbetweensentencepairssuchas(i)and(ii)below:
1Thethievesstolethejewels
2Thejewelswerestolenbythethieves
(i)issaidtobeanactiveclause(orsentence),and(ii)tobeitspassivecounterpart;similarly,theverbstoleissaidtobeanactiveverb(oraverbintheactivevoice)in(i),whereastheverbstolenissaidtobeapassiveverb(oraverbinthepassivevoice--morespecifically,apassiveparticiple)in(ii);likewise,theauxiliarywerein(ii)issaidtobeapassiveauxiliary.Inadifferentuse,aprobeorgoalissaidtobeactiveformovement/agreementifitcarriesan(unvalued)uninterpretablefeature:
see§8.4.
Adequacy,criteriaof:
Thesearethecriteriawhichanadequategrammarorlinguistictheorymustmeet.See§1.3.
Adjacencycondition:
aconditionrequiringthattwoexpressionsmustbeimmediatelyadjacent(i.e.theremustbenoconstituentinterveningbetweenthetwo)inorderforsomeoperationtoapply.Forexample,havemustbeimmediatelyadjacenttotheyinordertocliticiseontoitinstructuressuchasThey'vegonehome.
Adjective:
Thisisacategoryofword(abbreviatedtoA)whichoftendenotesstates(e.g.happy,sad),whichtypicallyhasanadverbcounterpartin-ly(cf.sad/sadly),whichtypicallyhascomparative/superlativeformsin-er/-est(cf.sadder/saddest),whichcanoftentaketheprefixun-(cf.unhappy),whichcanoftenformanounbytheadditionofthesuffix-ness(cf.sadness),etc.See§2.2and§2.3.
Adjoin:
SeeAdjunction.
Adjunct:
Onewayinwhichthistermisusedistodenoteanoptionalconstituenttypicallyusedtospecifye.g.thetime,placeormannerinwhichaneventtakesplace.Anotherwayinwhichitisusedistodenoteaconstituentwhichhasbeenattachedtoanothertoformalargerconstituentofthesametype.(SeeAdjunction).
Adjunction:
Thisisaprocessbywhichoneconstituentisadjoined(=attached)toanothertoformalargerconstituentofthesametype.Forexample,wecouldsaythatinasentencelike'Heshouldnotgo',thenegativeparticlenot(intheguiseofitscontractedformn't)canbeadjoinedtotheauxiliaryshouldtoformthenegativeauxiliaryshouldn't.InasentencesuchasHegentlyrolledtheballdownthehill,theadverbgentlycanbetakentobeanadverbwhichadjoinstoanverbalprojection,extendingitintoalargerprojectionofthesamekind:
see§9.4.
Adposition:
Acovertermsubsumingprepositionandpostposition.Forexample,theEnglishwordinisaprepositionsinceitispositionedbeforeitscomplement(cf.inTokyo),whereasitsJapanesecounterpartisapostpositionbecauseitispositionedafteritscomplementTokyo.Bothwordsareadpositions.
ADV/Adverb:
Thisisacategoryofwordwhichtypicallyindicatesmanner(e.g.'waitpatiently')ordegree(e.g.'exceedinglypatient').InEnglish,most(butnotall)adverbsendin-ly(cf.quickly--butalsoalmost).See§2.2and2.3.
AFF:
SeeAffix
Affective:
Anaffectiveconstituentisan(e.g.negative,interrogativeorconditional)expressionwhichcanhaveapolarityexpressionlike(partitive)anyinitsscope.So,forexample,interrogativeifisanaffectiveconstituentasweseefromthefactthataninterrogativeif-clausecancontainpartitiveanyinasentencesuchas'IwonderifhehasanynewsaboutJim.'
Affix/Affixal:
Thetermaffixtypicallyusedtodescribeagrammaticalmorphemewhichcannotstandonitsownasanindependentword,butwhichmustbeattachedtoahostwordofanappropriatekind.Anaffixwhichattachestothebeginningofaword(e.g.un-inunhappy)iscalledaprefix:
anaffixwhichattachestotheendofaword(e.g.-sinchases)iscalledasuffix.Anaffixalheadisonewhichbehaveslikeanaffixinneedingtoattachtoaparticularkindofhostword.SeealsoClitic.AffixHoppingisanoperationbywhichanunattachedaffixinTisloweredontoaverb:
see§4.4.AffixAttachmentisanoperationwherebyanunattachedtenseaffixlowersontoaverbwherepossible,butisotherwisesupportedbyuseofthedummyauxiliarydo:
see§5.8.
Agent:
Thisisatermusedtodescribethesemantic(=thematic)rolewhichaparticulartypeofargumentplaysinagivensentence.Ittypicallydenotesapersonwhodeliberatelycausessomestateofaffairstocomeabout--hencee.g.Johnplaysthethematicroleofagentinasentencesuchas'Johnsmashedthebottle'.See§7.5.
Agreement:
Anoperationbywhich(e.g.inasentencelikeTheyarelying)theperson/numberfeaturesoftheT-constituentaregetassignedthesamevaluesasthoseofitssubjectthey,sothatthepresent-tenseauxiliaryareisthirdpersonpluralbecauseitagreesinpersonandnumberwithitsthirdpersonpluralsubjectthey.Seech.8.
A-head:
AnA-headisthekindofhead(likeT)whichallowsasitsspecifieranargumentexpressionbutnotanadjunctexpression.AnA-barheadisthekindofhead(likeC)whichallowsasitsspecifiereitheranargumentoranadjunctexpression.
Allomorphs:
variantphoneticformsofasinglemorpheme.Forexample,thenounpluralmorpheme{s}inEnglishhasthethreeallomorphs/s/(e.g.incats)/z/(e.g.indogs)and/Iz/(e.g.inhorses).
A-movement:
MovementfromoneApositiontoanother(typically,fromasubjectorcomplementpositionintoanothersubjectposition).Seech.7.
A-position:
Apositionwhichcanbeoccupiedbyanargument,butnotbyanonargumentexpression(e.g.notbyanadjunct).Inpractice,thetermdenotesasubjectposition,oralexicalcomplementposition(i.e.apositionoccupiedbyaconstituentwhichisthecomplementofalexical/substantivehead).
Anaphor:
Thisisanexpression(likehimself)whichcannothaveindependentreference,butwhichmusttakeitsreferencefromanappropriateantecedent(i.e.expressionwhichitrefersto)withinthesamephraseorsentence.Hence,whilewecansay'Johnisdeludinghimself'(wherehimselfrefersbacktoJohn),wecannotsay*'Himselfiswaiting',sincetheanaphorhimselfherehasnoantecedent.Atraditionaldistinctionisdrawnbetweenreflexiveanaphors(i.e.selfformslikemyself/ourselves/yourself/yourselves/himself/herself/itself/themselves)andthereciprocalanaphorseachother/oneanother(cf.'Theyhelpeachother/oneanother').See§3.7andex.VI.
Animate:
Thetermanimateisusedtodenote(thegenderof)anexpressionwhichdenotesalivingbeing(e.g.ahumanbeingoranimal),whiletheterminanimateisusedinrelationtoanexpressionwhichdenoteslifelessentities.Forexample,therelativepronounwhocouldbesaidtobeanimateingenderandtherelativepronounwhichinanimate--hencewesaysomeonewhoupsetspeopleandsomethingwhichupsetspeople.
Antecedent:
Anexpressionwhichisreferredtobyapronounoranaphorofsomekind.Forexample,in'Johncuthimselfshaving',Johnistheantecedentoftheanaphorhimself,sincehimselfrefersbacktoJohn.Inasentencesuchas'Heissomeonewhowerespect',theantecedentoftherelativepronounwhoissomeone.
AP:
adjectivalphrase--i.e.aphraseheadedbyanadjective,suchasfondofchocolate,keenonsport,goodatsyntax,etc.
Appositiverelativeclause:
Arelativeclausewhichisusedasaparentheticalcomment,aswiththeparenthesisedrelativeclausein'John(whoyoumetlastweek)isagoodfriendofmine'.SeeRelative.
Arbitrary:
Whenwesaythatanexpressionhas'arbitraryreference',wemeanthatitcandenoteanunspecifiedsetofindividuals,andhencehavemuchthesamemeaningasEnglishone/peopleorFrenchon.Inasentencesuchas'Itisdifficult[PROtolearnJapanese]',thebracketedclauseissaidtohaveanabstractpronounsubjectPROwhichcanhavearbitraryreference,inwhichcasethesentenceisparaphraseableas'It'sdifficultforpeopletolearnJapanese.'See§4.2.
Argument:
Thisisatermborrowedbylinguistsfromphilosophy(morespecifically,frompredicatecalculus)todescribetheroleplayedbyparticulartypesofexpressioninthesemanticstructureofsentences.Inasentencesuchas'JohnhitFred',theoverallsentenceissaidtobeaproposition(atermusedtodescribethesemanticcontentofaclause),andtoconsistofthepredicatehitanditstwoargumentsJohnandFred.Thetwoargumentsrepresentthetwoparticipantsintheactofhitting,andthepredicateistheexpression(inthiscasetheverbhit)whichdescribestheactivityinwhichtheyareengaged.Byextension,inasentencesuchas'Johnsayshehatessyntax'thepredicateinthemainclauseistheverbsays,anditstwoargumentsareJohnandtheclausehehatessyntax;theargumen
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