chapter 2 speech sounds2.docx
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chapter 2 speech sounds2.docx
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chapter2speechsounds2
chapter2speechsounds
Chapter2SpeechSounds2.1SpeechproductionandperceptionPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:
1.Articulatoryphoneticsthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2.Acousticphoneticsthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech3.AuditoryphoneticsthestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2.2SpeechorgansSpeechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:
theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.1SegmentsanddivergencesAstherearemoresoundsinEnglishthanitsletters,eachlettermustrepresentmorethanonesound.2.3.2PhonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):
thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.2.4Consonants2.4.1ConsonantsandvowelsAconsonantisproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacestodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.Avowelisproducedwithoutobstructionsonoturbulenceoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.2.4.2ConsonantsThecategoriesofconsonantareestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:
1.theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract(mannerofarticulation);2.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionoftheair(placeofarticulation).2.4.3Mannersofarticulation1.Stop/plosive:
Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbystoppingtheairstreamfromthelungsandthensuddenlyreleasingit.InEnglish,[]arestopsand[]arenasalstops.2.Fricative:
Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbyallowingtheairstreamfromthelungstoescapewithfriction.Thisiscausedbybringingthetwoarticulators,e.g.theupperteethandthelowerlip,closetogetherbutnotclosesenoughtostoptheairstreamscompletely.InEnglish,[]arefricatives.3.(Median)approximant:
Anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.InEnglishthisclassofsoundsincludes[].4.Lateral(approximant):
Aspeechsoundwhichisproducedbypartiallyblockingtheairstreamfromthelungs,usuallybythetongue,butlettingitescapeatoneorbothsidesoftheblockage.[]istheonlylateralinEnglish.Otherconsonantalarticulationsincludetrill,taporflap,andaffricate.2.4.4Placesofarticulation1.Bilabial:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.2.Labiodental:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.3.Dental:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth.4.Alveolar:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.5.Postalveolar:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.6.Retroflex:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladecurledbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.7.Palatal:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.8.Velar:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.9.Uvular:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofthesofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.10.Pharyngeal:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.11.Glottal:
Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.2.4.5TheconsonantsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP):
ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.IthasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoasBBCEnglishorOxfordEnglishbecauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEnglishconsonantsInmanycasestherearetwosoundsthatsharethesameplaceandmannerofarticulation.Thesepairsofconsonantsaredistinguishedbyvoicing,theoneappearingontheleftisvoicelessandtheoneontherightisvoiced.Therefore,theconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingway:
[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[l]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximant2.5Vowels2.5.1Thecriteriaofvoweldescription1.Thepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,center,orback.2.Theextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate.Normally,threeorfourdegreesarerecognized:
high,mid(oftendividedintomid-highandmid-low)andlow.3.Thekindofopeningmadeatthelipsvariousdegreesofliproundingorspreading.4.Thepositionofthesoftpalateraisedfororalvowels,andloweredforvowelswhichhavebeennasalized.2.5.2ThetheoryofcardinalvowelsCardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendingtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsarenumberedfromonetoeightasfollows:
CV1[],CV2[],CV3[],CV4[],CV5[],CV6[],CV7[],CV8[].Asetofsecondarycardinalvowelsisobtainedbyreversingthelip-roundingforagiveposition:
CV9CV16.[IamsorryIcannottypeoutmanyofthese.Ifyouwanttoknow,youmayconsultthetextbookp.47.2.5.3VowelglidesPure(monophthong)vowels:
vowelswhichareproducedwithoutanynoticeablechangeinvowelquality.Vowelglides:
Vowelswherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Diphthong:
Avowelwhichisusuallyconsideredasonedistinctivevowelofaparticularlanguagebutreallyinvolvestwovowels,withonevowelglidingtotheother.2.5.4ThevowelsofRP[]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[]highbacklaxroundedvowel[]centrallaxunroundedvowel[]lowbacklaxroundedvowel2.6Coarticulationandphonetictranscription2.6.1CoarticulationCoarticulation:
Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.Anticipatorycoarticulation:
Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamp,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverativecoarticulation:
Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,asinthecaseofmap,itisperseverativecoarticulation.Nasalization:
Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecomenasal.Diacritics:
Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasicelements.2.6.2BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsTheuseofasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscriptioniscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Theformerwasmeanttoindicateonlythesesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguagewhilethelatterwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventheminutestshadesofpronunciation.2.7PhonologicalanalysisPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas:
articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.Ontheotherhand,phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.Thereisafairdegreeofoverlapinwhatconcernsthetwosubjects,sosometimesitishardtodrawtheboundarybetweenthem.Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.Thatistosay,phonologyisconcernedwiththelinguisticpatterningofsoundsinhumanlanguages,withitsprimaryaimbeingtodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.2.8Phonemesandallophones2.8.1MinimalpairsMinimalpairsaretwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromeachotherbyonlyonedistinctivesoundandwhichalsodifferinmeaning.E.g.theEnglishwordstieanddieareminimalpairsastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/t/and/d/.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsofalanguage,aphonologistcanfindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.2.8.2Thephonemetheory2.8.3AllophonesAphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.E.g.inEnglish,whenthephoneme//occursatthebeginningofthewordlikepeak//,itissaidwithalittlepuffofair,itisaspirated.Butwhen//occursinthewordlikespeak//,itissaidwithoutthepuffoftheair,itisunaspirated.Boththeaspirated[]inpeakandtheunaspirated[=]inspeakhavethesamephonemicfunction,i.e.theyarebothheardandidentifiedas//andnotas//;theyarebothallophonesofthephoneme//.2.9Phonologicalprocesses2.9.1AssimilationAssimilation:
Aprocessbywhichonesound
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