AUseRightWord.docx
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AUseRightWord.docx
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AUseRightWord
READER'SDIGEST
USETHERIGHTWORD
Introduction
Index
MODERNGUIDETO
SYNONYMS
ANDRELATEDWORDS
listsofantonyms
copiouscross-references
acompleteandlegibleindex
THEEDITORSOFTHEREADER'SDISGEST
andtheFunk&WagnallsDictionaryStaff
THEREADER'SDIGEST
LONDON SYDNEY NEWYORK
HONGKONG MANILA
INTRODUCTION
byS.I.Hayakava
Englishhasthelargestvocabularyandthemostsynonymsofanylanguageintheworld.ThisrichnessisduetothefactthattheEnglishlanguagehasgrownoverthecenturiesbyconstantlyincorporatingwordsfromotherlanguages.EvenbeforetheNormanConquest,theAnglo-SaxonvocabularyincludedwordsborrowedfromLatin(street,mile,thesuffix–chesterinthenamesoftowns),Greek(priest,bishop),Celtic(crag,bin)andScandinavian(law,fellow,egg,thrall).AftertheNormanConquest,theEnglishvocabularywasvirtuallydoubledbytheadditionofFrenchwords,especiallythosereflectingahigherstandardoflivingandamorecomplexsociallife:
forexample,wordsconnectedwithfood(sugar,vinegar,boil,fry,roast),clothing(garment,robe,mantle,gown),law(plaintiff,perjury,legacy),religion(convent,hermitage,chaplain,cardinal)andsocialrankandorganization(prince,duke,vassal,mayor,constable).
WhilemuchofthenewFrenchvocabularydescribednewideasandactivities,muchofitduplicatedthepre-existingAnglo-Saxonvocabulary,givingthewriterorspeakerachoiceofsynonyms:
cure(French)orheal(Anglo-Saxon),tableorboard,poignantorsharp,labourorwork,mirrororglass,assembleormeet,powerormight.Sometimestheduplicationofvocabularywasusedtomakedistinctions:
ox,swine,calfanddeerwerecalled,whenkilledapreparedforcooking,beef,pork,vealandvenison;hitting,striking,stealingandrobbingbecame,whenviewedthroughtheyeyesofFrenchlaw,assault,battery,larcenyandburglary.
WiththeenormousexpansionofclassicallearningintheRenaissance,therewasagreatinfluxofwordsofLatinandGreekoriginintolanguage,dictatedbythedemandsofanenrichedintellectualandculturallife.Also,thelargerworlddiscoveredthroughtravel(fromtheCrusadesonwards)andexploration(especiallyintheElizabethanperiod)wasagreatstimulustocultureandlanguage.Therealsoaroseinthesixteenthcenturyafashionofornamentingone’sdiscoursewithwhatwerethencalled"aureate"or"inkhorn"termsdrawnfromGreekandLatin.Shakespeare’s"multitudinousseasincarnadine"isafamousexample,andwhathappenedtotheseparticularwordsintypicalofthefateofthisnewvocabulary:
multitudinousstayedinthelanguageasoneofseveralsynonymsformany,whileincarnadineisnotheardanymoreexceptinthiscontext.Inbrief,manywordsofclassicaloriginintroducedintothelanguageduringtheRenaissancebecamepermanentadditions,butmostweresoonforgottenorwererelegatedtospecialtechnicalcontexts,likehebdemodary(weekly)andgressorial(havingtodowithwalking).
TheadventuresofEnglish-speakingpeopleastheytradedandfoughtandtravelledaroundtheworldinmoderntimes–inEurope,NorthAmerica,India,Australia,Africa–alsoexpandedtovocabulary.WordswereborrowedfromDutch(tub,spool,deck),Spanish(sherry,armada,grenade),AmericanIndian(squash,toboggan,hickory),EastIndian(cashmere,punch,shampoo),Afrikaans(veldt,trek),Italian(soprano,casino,macaroni),Mexican(chocolate,tomato),Australian(kangaroo,billabong),Japanese(kimono,rickshaw),Malay(amok,sarong),andmanyothers.
Furthermore,theUnitedStates,asaseparatenationwithitsownlifeandcharacterandinstitutions,hasaddedvastlytotheEnglishvocabularysinceAmericancolonialtimes.WiththeriseoftheUnitedStatestoapositionofWorldinfluenceinpolitics,science,industry,tradeandthepopulararts,Americanwordsandphraseshavegainedrecognitionandprestigeeverywhere.Icecream,jeepandrock-and-rollareinternationallyknownterms,asarecontainment,DEW-lineandnucleardeterrent.Moreover,AmericanterminologyformanythingsexistssidebysidewithanEnglishterminology,placinganotherwholegroupofsynonymsatourservice:
help(American)andservant(British),sidewalkandpavement,railroadandrailway,elevatorandlift,druggistandchemist,instalmentplanandhire-purchasesystem,gasolineandpetrol,checkersanddraughts,trunkandboot(ofacar)andsoonthroughanalmostinterminablelist.
SynonymsinEnglisharethereforeofmanykinds.Somegroupsofsynonyms,likeforeword(English),preface(French),introduction(Latin)andprolegomenon(Greek),seemlikeasimpleembarrassmentofriches.Some,likeplain(French),steppe(Russian),pampas(Spanish,fromSouthAmericanIndian),prairie(Frenchvoyageur),savannah(Spanish),tundra(Russian,fromLappish),refertogeographicalvariantsofthesamekindofthing.Others,liketeach,educate,indoctrinate,instruct,school,tutor,differfromoneanotherprincipallyindegreesofabstraction:
teachiscertainlythemostgeneralwordofthisgroup,whiletheothersaremorespecializedinapplication.Somewordsofquitesimilarmeaningmakedistinctionsattheconcrete,descriptivelevel:
tip,cant,careen,heel,list,slant,slope,till;screech,scream,clamour,yell,howl.Thesearetrulysynonymsonlyiftranslatedintomoregeneralform,theformergroupintoincline,thelatterintooutcry.
Itcanbearguedthattherereallyarenoexactsynonyms–noexactequivalencesofmeaning.Suchapositioncanbeupheldifby"meaning"werefertothetotalrangeofcontextsinwhichawordmaybeused.Contextsinwhicheithermightappear.Butwithinagivencontext,thereisoftenexactsynonymy:
Imislaidmywallet;Imisplacedmywallet.Inaslightlydifferentcontextthetwowordsarenotinterchangeable:
itwouldnotbeidiomatictosay,Imislaidmysuitcase–allofwhichmaysuggestthatwhilemisplaceisapplicabletobothsmallobjectsandlarge,mislayappliesonlytosmall.Also,onemaysufferdisappointmentbecauseofmisplace,butnevermislaid,trust.Thisexampleshowsagainthatwordswhicharesynonymousinoneoftheirmeaningsmaydifferconsiderablyintheirothermeanings.
Somegroupsofwordsdescribethesameactions,butimplydifferentrelationshipsamongthepartiesconcerned.Weaccompanyourequals;weattendorfollowthosetowhomwearesubordinate;weconductthosewhoneedguidance,escortthosewhoneedprotection,andchaperonthosewhoneedsupervision;merchantshipsareconvoyedintimeofwar.Feminine,effeminate,womanlyandwomanisharemuchalikeinreferringtofemalecharacteristics,butthesecondappliesonlytomales,andtheninaderogatorysense.
Somedifferencesinlocutionrevealdifferencesinthedegreeofformalityoftheoccasionsdescribed:
aluncheonasdistinguishedfromalunch.Sometimesdifferentlocutionsrevealdifferencesnotinthesituationsdescribedbutintheformalityofdiscourseaboutthem:
Hewenttobed,forinstance,ascomparedtoHehitthesack.
Referenceismadethroughoutthisbooktowordswhichhavelegalimplications.Sincevariationsintheirmeaningsmayoccurnotonlybetweenonecountryandanotherbut,asinAustralia,evenbetweenthestates,allsuchreferenceshouldberegardednotashard-and-fastlegaldefinitionsbutratherasexplanationsofgenerallyacceptedusage.
Semanticistsandlinguisticscholarscontinuetoremindusthatwordschangeinmeaningaccordingtotimeandplaceandcircumstance.ThedemocracyofSwedenisnotidenticalwiththatwhichbearsthesamenameinBritain,JapanortheGermanDemocraticRepublic;andthedemocracyofanyofthesenationschangesfromdecadetodecade,formyeartoyear.Suchwarningsarecertainlynottobeignoredandtheeditorsofthisworkarewellawarethat,becauseofthischangingnatureoflanguage,noonebookcansatisfyallusersofEnglish.Absoluteagreementoneveryshadeofmeaningisnotpossible;allwordsattheirvariouslevelsofusecannotbeincluded,andafewofthelistingsmaybeconsideredsuperfluousbysomereader.
Yet,withallthechangesthatgoonbothinlanguageandintheworlddescribedbylanguage,thereareremarkableelementsofstabilityinavocabularywithasrichaliteraryandculturalhistoryasEnglish.Thedistinctionsbetweenbraveryandfoolhardiness,betweenweepingandwhining,betweenfuryandrage,betweenthoughtanddeliberation,betweendesolateanddisconsolate,haveremainedremarkablyconstantsinceShakespeare’sdayinallEnglish-speakingcountries.Itisgratifyingtocallthereader’sattentiontothemanynewwords–evenfadwords–andnewmeaningsdiscussedinthepresentvolume.Butthereaderwillfindequalpleasure–perhapsmore–inthecontinuitiesandconstanciesinthemeaningsofEnglishwordsthatpersistdespitechangesoftimesandchangesofscene.
Nothingissoimportanttoclearandaccurateexpressionastheabilitytodistinguishbetweenwordsofsimilar,butnotidentical,meaning.Thereareoccasionsinwhichwehavetomakechoicesbetweentransientandtransitory,mutualandreciprocal,gaudyandgarish,inherentandintrinsic,speculateandruminate,pinnacleandsummit,becauseinagivencontextoniscertaintobemoreappropriatethantheother.Tochoosewronglyistoleavethehearerorreaderwithafuzzyormistakenimpression.Tochoosewellistogivebothilluminationanddelight.Thestudyofsynonymswillhelpthereadercomeclosertosayingwhathereallywantstosay.
aware
cognizant
conscious
mindful
onto
Thesewordsmeantohaveknowledgeoftheexistenceorfactofsomething.Awareisthebroadestterm,andmaymeanhavingknowledgeofsomethinginsideoneselforofsomee
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