Chapter Six Syntax IIPhrase Structure RulesWord文件下载.docx
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Chapter Six Syntax IIPhrase Structure RulesWord文件下载.docx
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surfacestructureanddeepstructure.Sincethesetwoconceptsaredifficulttounderstand,weshallfirstlookatsomeconcreteexamples.
A.Thechickenistoohottoeat.
Thissentencehasstructuralambiguity.Itmaybeunderstoodintwoways:
a.Thechickenissohotthatitcannoteatanything.
b.Thechickenissohotthatpeoplecannoteatit.
Intermsofsurfacestructure,wecangetonlyonephrasemarker:
Butintermsofthelevelofdeepstructure,SentenceAisrelatedtotwodistinctdeepstructures.Theycouldberepresentedbythefollowingtwophrasemarkers:
However,theyhaveonlyonecommondeepstructure,whichisverymuchlikethesurfacestructureoftheactivesentence.Itcouldberepresentedbethefollowingdiagram:
C.Johniseasytoplease.
Thissentencehasnostructuralambiguity.Ithasonesurfacestructureandonedeepstructure.
Itssurfacestructurewouldbelikethefollowingdiagram:
Itsdeepstructurewouldbelikethefollowingdiagram:
ii.Differencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure:
1)Asurfacestructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothelineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced;
adeepstructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.
2)Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete;
adeepstructureisabstract.
3)Asurfacestructuregivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication;
adeepstructuregivesthemeaningofasentence.
4)Asurfacestructureispronounceable;
adeepstructureisnotpronounceable.
2.Ageneraldescriptionofphrasestructurerules
TGgrammarsaysthatphrasestructurerulescangeneratedeepstructuresofsentences.Theycanspecifythelinearorderingofwords,thehierarchicalarrangementofconstituentsandthesyntacticcategoryofeachconstituent.Theymakeeverythingexplicitthatisneededfordeterminingthemeaningofasentence.
TogeneratethedeepstructureofanEnglishsentence,wealwaysstartwiththerule:
S→NPAUXVP
ThisrulemeansthatwemayrewriteSasNPAUXVP.Inotherwords,theruleclaimsthatallgrammaticalsentencesinEnglishconsistofthreeelements:
NP,AUXandVP.Andthesethreeelementsalwaysappearinthatorder.Therulecanberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagram:
ThenhowdoweexpandNP,AUXandVPrespectively?
Thefollowingsectionswilldiscusstheprocessesofexpandingthemonebyone.
3.Nounphrase
Lookingatthesefourrules,weshallintroducetwoterms:
compulsoryconstituent强制成分andoptional选择成分constituent.TheconstituentwhichisalwayspresentontherightsideofthearrowofaPSruleiscalledacompulsoryconstituent.Theconstituentswhichmaybepresentorabsentontherightsideofthearrowarecalledoptionalconstituents.
WemaycombineRule1,Rule2,Rule3andRule4intoonebyputtingtheoptionalconstituentsinbrackets:
NP→(Det)(AP)N
Thisruleindicatesfourphrasestructurepossibilities:
i.anounprecededbyaDet;
ii.anounonly;
iii.anounprecededbyanAP;
iv.anounprecededbybothDetandAP
Thisphrasemarkerseemstohavenoending.Sucharuleiscalledarecursiverule.Theruleswithrecursiveproperty循环性特征canaccountforthecreativeaspectoflanguage.
Lookattheexamplesin(32)onPP150-151andtrytodrawtheirdeepstructurephrasemarkers.
4.Verbphrases
ThusfarwehavediscussedhowtoconstructthePSrulesfornounphrasesandhowtogeneratenounphrasesbythePSrules.NowweshallstudyverbphrasesandthePSrulesforgeneratingverbphrases.
ii.Twopointstobeclarified:
Beforeweproceedtothetopicitself,wehavetoclarifytwopointsaboutthetermverbinTGgrammar.
A.Firstly,anEnglishverbnormallyhasfiveforms:
thebase,thepresent,thepast,thepastparticipleandthepresentparticiple.Butinthedeepstructure,verbsalwaystakethebaseform.Thatistosay,atthelevelofdeepstructure,theinflectionalendingsdonotoccurtogetherwiththeverbs.Theyareseparatedfromtheverbsandarepartofanauxiliaryphrase.
B.Secondly,theverbsinverbphrasesarecalledmainverbs.Theotherverbsarehelpingverbs.Thehelpingverbsarealsopartofanauxiliaryphrase.
ThuswecansayAUX=inflectionalendingsofverbs+helpingverbsForexample,inthefollowingsentence:
iii.ConstructingthePSrulesforverbphrases:
Nowconsiderthefollowingdata,andtrytoconstructthePSrulesfortheverbphrasesineachgroup.
Therewouldbenolimitonthelengthofasentenceasshowninthediagram.Thisalsoindicatedthecreativeaspectoflanguage.
Nowlet'
sjoinRules7to11together:
Thisruleindicatesfivepossibilitiesofaverbphrase.
iv.举例:
laythebabyinthecrib
5.Auxiliaryphrases助动词短语
5.0Introduction:
InTGgrammar,anauxiliaryphraseconsistsoffourcomponents:
tense时态,modalverbs情态动词,theperfectaspect完成体andtheprogressiveaspect进行体.Nowweshalldiscussthemonebyone.
5.1Tense
Inthethreesentencesgivenabove,thereisonlytenseinAUX.ThuswecanconstructaPSruleforAUX:
Accordingtotheserules,wecandrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersofsentencesA,BandC:
YoumightfeelstrangewhyweexpandTenseintoeitherPresentorPast.Herewewanttoemphasizeoneimportantpoint.InTGgrammar,thereareonlytwotenses:
presentandpast.TGgrammariansarguethattensehastobeestablishedbasedontheinflectionalendingsoftheverb.
Tounderstandthispoint,weshouldmakeacleardistinctionbetweentenseandtime.Tenseisagrammaticalcategory,buttimeisasemanticcategory.Let'
slookatsomeexamples:
(请参考161页上(47)、(48))
5.2Modalverbs
InTGgrammar,modalverbsincludecan,may,will,shallandmustinthepresenttense;
could,might,wouldandshouldinthepasttense.
Lookatthefollowingsentences:
Accordingtothesentencesgivenabove,wemayconstructPSrulesasfollows:
Withtherules,wemaydrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkerforanyofthesentences.Let'
stakesentenceBforexample:
5.3Perfect
Accordingtothesesentences,wemayconstructanotherPSruleforAUX:
sdrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkerforsentenceA:
5.4Progressive
Accordingtothedatagivenabove,anewPSrulemaybeconstructed:
Now,let'
sdrawthedeepstructurephrasemarkerforsentencesAandB:
Sofar,wehavediscussedthe4componentsofAUXrespectively.Actuallywehaveexamined4possiblestructuresofAUX.
Rule13-Rule16
However,thesearenottheonlypossiblecombinations.Lookatthefollowingsentences:
sanalyzethestructuresofthesesentencesfromthelevelofdeepstructure:
6.Sentences
SofarwehavediscussedallthePSruleswhichareusedtogenerateNP,VP,AUX,APandPP.Nowwecanexaminetheprocessbywhichawholesentenceisgenerated.
Forexample:
1)Marywaited.2)Thenaughtygirlputthebeautifulbookunderthedesk.3)Ibelievehewillcome.4)Shemighthavebeenwaitingforus.
Thedeepstructuresofthesesentencesmayberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagrams:
Exercises
1.Explainthedistinctionbetweenthefollowingtermsasclearasyoucan:
(a)deepstructureandsurfacestructure;
InTGgrammar,adeepstructureisgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.Itisabstractanddecidesthemeaningofasentence.Asurfacestructureisderivedfromitscorrespondingdeepstructurebytransformationalrules.Itisrelativelyconcreteanddecidestheactualfromofasentence.
(b)phrasestructurerulesandtransformationalrules.
InTGgrammar,phrasestructurerulescangeneratethedeepstructureofasentence;
transformationalrulesareappliedtoderivethesurfacefromitsdeepstructure.
2.ExpandthefollowingcollapsedPSrulesintotheindividualrulesthattheyabbreviate:
3.combinethefollowingindividualrulesintoone:
4.Drawthedeepstructurephrasemarkersforthefollowingphrases:
(a)youngboys
aninterestingstory
thecharmingoldEnglishchurch
(b)ateacake
stoodintheway
putthepictureonthewall
said(that)Iwouldleave
(c)couldsingasong
hasgonetoBeijing
areworking
couldbeworking
mighthavebeenathome
mighthavebeenreading
mighthavebeenmakingachair
5.Pointoutthemistakesinthefollowingdeepstructurephrasemarkersandmakecorrectionswherenecessary.)
6.Writedownthephrasestructurerulesthatcangenerateeachofthefollowingsentences(Note:
Combinetwoormoreindividualrulesinto
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