Ego Depletion Is the Active Self a Limited ResourceWord文件下载.docx
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Ego Depletion Is the Active Self a Limited ResourceWord文件下载.docx
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Manycrucialfunctionsoftheselfinvolvevolition:
makingchoicesanddecisions,takingresponsibility,initiatingandinhibitingbehavior,andmakingplansofactionandcarryingoutthoseplans.Theselfexertscontroloveritselfandovertheexternalworld.Tobesure,notallhumanbehaviorinvolvesplanfulordeliberatecontrolbytheself,and,infact,recentworkhasshownthatagreatdealofhumanbehaviorisinfluencedbyautomaticornonconsciousprocesses(seeBargh,1994,1997).Butundoubtedlysomeportioninvolvesdeliberate,conscious,controlledresponsesbytheself,andthatportionmaybedisproportionatelyimportanttothelong-termhealth,happiness,andsuccessoftheindividual.Evenifitwereshownthat95%ofbehaviorconsistedoflawful,predictableresponsestosituationalstimulibyautomaticprocesses,psychologycouldnotaffordtoignoretheremaining5%.Asananalogy,carsareprobablydrivenstraightaheadatleast95%ofthetime,butignoringtheother5%(suchasbybuildingcarswithoutsteeringwheels)wouldseriouslycompromisethecar'
sabilitytoreachmostdestinations.Bythesametoken,therelativelyfewactive,controllingchoicesbytheselfgreatlyincreasetheself'
schancesofachievingitsgoals.Andifthosefew“steering”choicesbytheselfareimportant,thensoiswhateverinternalstructureoftheselfisresponsibleforit.
Inthepresentinvestigationwewereconcernedwiththiscontrollingaspectoftheself.Specifically,wetestedhypothesesofegodepletion,asawayoflearningabouttheself'
sexecutivefunction.Thecoreideabehindegodepletionisthattheself'
sactsofvolitiondrawonsomelimitedresource,akintostrengthorenergyandthat,therefore,oneactofvolitionwillhaveadetrimentalimpactonsubsequentvolition.Wesoughttoshowthatapreliminaryactofself-controlintheformofresistingtemptation(Experiment1)orapreliminaryactofchoiceandresponsibility(Experiment2)wouldundermineself-regulationinasubsequent,unrelateddomain,namelypersistenceatadifficultandfrustratingtask.Wethensoughttoverifythattheeffectsofegodepletionareindeedmaladaptiveanddetrimentaltoperformance(Experiment3).Last,weundertooktoshowthategodepletionresultingfromactsofself-controlwouldinterferewithsubsequentdecisionmakingbymakingpeoplemorepassive(Experiment4).
Ourresearchstrategywastolookateffectsthatwouldcarryoveracrosswidegapsofseemingirrelevance.Ifresistingthetemptationtoeatchocolatecanleaveapersonpronetogiveupfasteronadifficult,frustratingpuzzle,thatwouldsuggestthatthosetwoverydifferentactsofself-controldrawonthesamelimitedresource.Andifmakingachoiceaboutwhethertomakeaspeechcontrarytoone'
sopinionsweretohavethesameeffect,itwouldsuggestthatthatverysameresourceisalsotheoneusedingeneralfordeliberate,responsibledecisionmaking.Thatresourcewouldpresumablybeoneofthemostimportantfeaturesoftheself.
ExecutiveFunction
Thetermagencyhasbeenusedbyvariouswriterstorefertotheself'
sexertionofvolition,butthistermhasmisleadingconnotations:
Anagentisquintessentiallysomeonewhoactsonbehalfofsomeoneelse,whereasthephenomenonunderdiscussioninvolvestheselfactingautonomouslyonitsownbehalf.Thetermexecutivefunctionhasbeenusedinvariouscontextstorefertothisaspectofselfandhencemaybepreferable(e.g.,Epstein,1973;
seeBaumeister,1998).Meanwhile,weusethetermegodepletiontorefertoatemporaryreductionintheself'
scapacityorwillingnesstoengageinvolitionalaction(includingcontrollingtheenvironment,controllingtheself,makingchoices,andinitiatingaction)causedbypriorexerciseofvolition.
Thepsychologicaltheorythatvolitionisoneoftheself'
scrucialfunctionscanbetracedbackatleasttoFreud(1923/1961a,1933/1961b),whodescribedtheegoasthepartofthepsychethatmustdealwiththerealityoftheexternalworldbymediatingbetweenconflictinginnerandouterpressures.Inhisscheme,forexample,aVictoriangentlemanstandingonthestreetmightfeelurgedbyhisidtoheadforthebrothelandbyhissuperegotogotochurch,butitisultimatelyleftuptohisegotostarthisfeetwalkinginonedirectionortheother.Freudalsoseemstohavebelievedthattheegoneededtousesomeenergyinmakingsuchadecision.
Recentresearchhasconvincinglyilluminatedtheself'
snearlyrelentlessquestforcontrol(Brehm,1966;
Burger,1989;
DeCharms,1968;
Deci&
Ryan,1991,1995;
Langer,1975;
Rothbaum,Weisz,&
Snyder,1982;
Taylor,1983,1989;
White,1959).Itisalsoknownthatwhentheselffeelshighlyresponsible(accountable)foritsactions,itscognitiveandbehavioralprocesseschange(Cooper&
Scher,1994;
Linder,Cooper,&
Jones,1967;
Tetlock,1983,1985;
Tetlock&
Boettger,1989).Activeresponsesalsohavemorepowerfuleffectsontheselfanditssubsequentresponsesthandopassiveones(Allison&
Messick,1988;
Cioffi&
Garner,1996;
Fazio,Sherman,&
Herr,1982).Theprocessesbywhichtheselfmonitorsitselfinordertoapproachstandardsofdesiredbehaviorhavealsobeenstudied(Carver&
Scheier,1981;
Duval&
Wicklund,1972;
Wegner,1994;
Wegner&
Pennebaker,1993).Despitetheseefforts,itishardtodisputethatunderstandingoftheexecutivefunctionremainsfarmorevagueandrudimentarythanotheraspectsofself-theory.Researchersinvestigatingcognitiverepresentationsofselfhavemadeenormousprogressinrecentdecades(forreviews,seeBanaji&
Prentice,1994;
Fiske&
Taylor,1991).Likewise,therehasbeenconsiderableprogressoninterpersonalaspectsofselfhood(e.g.,Leary,1995;
Leary&
Kowalski,1990;
Schlenker,1980;
Tesser,1988).Incomparison,understandingoftheself'
sexecutivefunctionlagsbehindatafairlyprimitivelevel.
EgoDepletion
Thenotionthatvolitiondependsontheself'
sexpenditureofsomelimitedresourcewasanticipatedbyFreud(1923/1961a,1933/1961b).Hethoughttheegoneededtohavesomeformofenergytoaccomplishitstasksandtoresisttheenergeticpromptingsofidandsuperego.Freudwasfondoftheanalogyofhorseandrider,becauseashesaidtherider(analogoustotheego)isgenerallyinchargeofsteeringbutissometimesunabletopreventthehorsefromgoingwhereitwantstogo.Freudwasrathervagueandinconsistentaboutwheretheego'
senergycamefrom,butherecognizedtheconceptualvalueofpostulatingthattheegooperatedonanenergymodel.
Severalmodernresearchfindingssuggestthatsomeformofenergyorstrengthmaybeinvolvedinactsofvolition.Mostofthesehavebeenconcernedwithself-regulation.Indeed,Mischel(1996)hasrecentlyproposedthatthecolloquialnotionofwillpowerberevivedforself-regulationtheory,andaliteraturereviewbyBaumeister,Heatherton,andTice(1994)concludedthatmuchevidenceaboutself-regulatoryfailurefitsamodelofstrengthdepletion.
AnimportantearlystudybyGlass,Singer,andFriedman(1969)foundthatparticipantsexposedtounpredictablenoisestresssubsequentlyshoweddecrementsinfrustrationtolerance,asmeasuredbypersistenceonunsolvableproblems.1Glassetal.concludedthatadaptingtounpredictablestressinvolvesa“psychiccost,”whichimpliesanexpenditureordepletionofsomevaluableresource.Theyleftthenatureofthisresourcetofutureresearch,whichhasnotmademuchfurtherprogress.
AdditionalevidenceforastrengthmodelwasprovidedbyMuraven,Tice,andBaumeister(1998),whoseresearchstrategyinfluencedthepresentinvestigation.Muravenetal.soughttoshowthatconsecutiveexertionsofself-regulationwerecharacterizedbydeterioratingperformance,eventhoughtheexertionsinvolvedseeminglyunrelatedspheres.Inonestudy,theyshowedthattryingnottothinkaboutawhitebear(athought-controltaskborrowedfromWegner,1989;
Wegner,Schneider,Carter,&
White,1987)causedpeopletogiveupmorequicklyonasubsequentanagramtask.Inanotherstudy,anaffect-regulationexercisecausedsubsequentdecrementsinenduranceatsqueezingahandgrip.Thesefindingssuggestthatexertionsofself-controldocarryapsychiccostanddepletesomescarceresource.
Tointegratethesescatteredfindingsandimplications,wesuggestthefollowing.Oneimportantpartoftheselfisalimitedresourcethatisusedforallactsofvolition,suchascontrolled(asopposedtoautomatic)processing,active(asopposedtopassive)choice,initiatingbehavior,andoverridingresponses.Becausemuchofself-regulationinvolvesresistingtemptationandhenceoverridingmotivatedresponses,thisself-resourcemustbeabletoaffectbehaviorinthesamefashionthatmotivationdoes.Motivationscanbestrongorweak,andstrongerimpulsesarepresumabl
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