高级英语第二册第四课相关逻辑知识Word格式.docx
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高级英语第二册第四课相关逻辑知识Word格式.docx
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theycommittheircrimes;
obviously,violentmoviesleadto
juveniledelinquency.
甲事情发生在乙事情之前,这并不代表着先发生的甲事情就是后发生的乙事情的原因。
4.矛盾前提(ContradictoryPremises)
IfGodcandoeverything,canhemakeastoneso
heavythathecan'
tcarry?
前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方,结论当然是错误的。
5.感性论证(AdMisericordiam)
Thinkofallthepoor,starvingAfricanchildren!
How
couldrichcountriesbesocruelasnottohelpthem?
抒情是不能当作论证的。
6.错误类比(FalseAnalogy)
Youngchildrenarelikeflowers---flowersshouldstay
awayfromterribleweathertogrow,sochildrenneedtogetrid
ofeverythingnegative.
孩子和花朵的区别太大。
成长的过程也太复杂。
最好不要用这两者来类比。
7.虚假假设(HypothesisContrarytoFact)
IfTVwerenotinvented,todaypeoplewouldnever
havesuchwonderfulentertainmentbroughtbyTV.
因为电视已经被发明了,对于过去的否定假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。
8.无关转移(RedHerring)
Manypeoplesayweneedtoexploittheouterspace,
例如:
apointwhichIbelieveiswrong,becausetherearesomany
poorpeopleonEarthwhohardlymakeendsmeet.
有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。
9.从众错误(Bandwagon)
Everyonesaysitisjustifiedtolearnasecond
languagesowemustlearnone.
人人都说,或者大多数都说,这并不意味着该观点正确。
10.滑坡谬误(Slipperyslope)
Ifwedon'
tcareabouttheenvironment,theworldwill
diein50years.
从环境问题到世界灭亡,中间有无数环节未提供论证。
ExamplesofSlipperySlope
1.Wehavetostopthetuitionincrease!
Thenextthingyou
know,they'
llbecharging$40,000asemester!
TheUSshouldn'
tgetinvolvedmilitarilyinothercountries.2.
Oncethegovernmentsendsinafewtroops,itwillthen
sendinthousandstodie.
Youcannevergiveanyoneabreak.Ifyoudo,they'
llwalk3.
alloveryou.
We'
vegottostopthemfrombanningpornography.Once4.
theystartbanningoneformofliterature,theywillnever
stop.Nextthingyouknow,theywillbeburningallthe
books!
11.appealtoemotionaplaceresponseemotionalofinYouattemptedtomanipulatean
validorcompellingargument.
appealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,Appealstoemotioninclude
It'
simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentandmore.argumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,butthe
problemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogical
argument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreason
bysociopaths,Everyone,barisaffectedone'
sexistsforposition.
emotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffective
argumenttactic,butthey'
reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendto
makeone'
sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.
hissheep'
sbrainswithtoExample:
Lukedidn'
twanteatchopped
liverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthe
poor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'
fortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.
personalattack人身攻击12.adhominemaninorcharacterpersonaltraitsattackedYouyouropponent'
s
attempttounderminetheirargument.
Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,
personaltheironcharacterorsubtlyormorecastingdoubt
attributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanad
actuallycasewithoutundermineattackhomcanbetosomeone'
havingtoengagewithit.
Example:
AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcasefora
audiencewhetherweasksthetaxationmoreequitablesystem,Sam
shouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'
tmarried,wasonce
arrested,andsmellsabitweird.第七条:
诉诸虚伪13.loadedquestion含沙射影Youaskedaquestionthathadapresumptionbuiltintoitsothatit
couldn'
tbeansweredwithoutappearingguilty.
derailingeffectiveatfallaciesLoadedquestionareparticularly
rationaldebatesbecauseoftheirinflammatorynature-therecipient
maydefendiscompelledtothemselvesandquestiontheofloaded
appearflusteredoronthebackfoot.
inromanticallywereandExample:
GraceHelenbothinterested
Brad.Oneday,withBradsittingwithinearshot,Graceaskedinan
inquisitivetonewhetherHelenwashavinganyproblemswithadrug
habit.
14.appealtoauthority诉诸权威
mustitthinksthatYousaidbecauseanauthoritysomething,
thereforebetrue.
It'
simportanttonotethatthisfallacyshouldnotbeusedtodismiss
theclaimsofexperts,orscientificconsensus.Appealstoauthorityare
notvalidarguments,butnorisitreasonabletodisregardtheclaims
ofexpertswhohaveademonstrateddepthofknowledgeunlessone
empiricalaccesstounderstandingahassimilarlevelofand/or
evidence.Howeveritis,entirelypossiblethattheopinionofaperson
orinstitutionofauthorityiswrong;
thereforetheauthoritythatsuch
apersonorinstitutionholdsdoesnothaveanyintrinsicbearingupon
whethertheirclaimsaretrueornot.
true'
evolution'
isn'
tthattoExample:
Notabledefendhisposition
Bobsaysthatheknowsascientistwhoalsoquestionsevolution(and
presumablyisn'
taprimate).
15窃取论点.beggingthequestionwasconclusioninacircularargumentwhichthepresentedYou
includedinthepremise.
where
situationsinarisesoftenargumentincoherentlogicallyThis
thereforeandingrained,assumptionanthatisverypeoplehave
mostlyreasoninggiven.Circularisbadtakenintheirmindsasa
becauseit'
snotverygood.
Weperfect.isflawlessandwordExample:
TheofZorbotheGreat
ofInfallibleBooksoitsaysinTheGreatandthisknowbecause
andareTruestThingsthatDefinitelyTrueMostZorbo'
sBestand
ShouldNotEverBeQuestioned.
第一条:
稻草人1.strawman/strawmanYoumisrepresentedsomeone'
sargumenttomakeiteasiertoattack.
fabricatingcompletelyexaggerating,misrepresenting,orjustBy
someone'
sargument,it'
smucheasiertopresentyourownpositionas
underminedishonestyservestoofreasonable,beingbutthiskind
honestrationaldebate.
AfterWillsaidthatweshouldputmoremoneyintohealth
surprisedhewasthatWarrenandeducation,respondedbysaying
ittoleavewantsthatsoourWillthathatescountrymuchhe
defencelessbycuttingmilitaryspending.
第二条:
错误归因2.falsecause
thingsbetweenrealaorperceivedrelationshipYoupresumedthat
meansthatoneisthecauseoftheother.
inor(thingshappeningtogethercorrelationManypeopleconfuse
totheotherthingforsequence)causation(thatoneactuallycauses
beorSometimeshappen).correlationiscoincidental,itmay
attributabletoacommoncause.
Pointingtoafancychart,Rogershowshowtemperatures
havebeenrisingoverthepastfewcenturies,whilstatthesametime
thebeennumberstheofpirateshavedecreasing;
thuspiratescool
worldandglobalwarmingisahoax.第三条:
诉诸感情3.appealtoemotionaofinemotionaltomanipulateanresponseplaceattemptedYou
Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,
andmore.It'
simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherent
argumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,butthe
byisbarposition.forexistsone'
sEveryone,sociopaths,affected
choppedeatdidn'
twanttohissheep'
sbrainswithExample:
Luke
weren'
tinchildrenathirdworldcountrywhopoor,starving
fortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.第四条:
谬误谬误4.thefallacyfallacyaorbeenpoorlyargued,aYoupresumedthatbecauseclaimhas
fallacyhasbeenmade,thattheclaimitselfmustbewrong.
withargueismakeisItentirelypossibletoaclaimthatfalseyet
logicalcoherencyforthatclaim,justasispossibletomakeaclaim
thatistrueandjustifyitwithvariousfallaciesandpoorarguments.
infallacyAmandaExample:
Recognisingthathadcommitteda
arguingthatweshouldeathealthyfoodbecauseanutritionistsaidit
doublesaidwaspopular,Alyseweshouldthereforeeatbacon
cheeseburgerseveryday.第五条:
滑坡谬误5.slipperyslopeYousaidthatifweallowAtohappen,thenZwilleventuallyhappen
too,thereforeAshouldnothappen.
Theproblemwiththisreasoningisthatitavoidsengagingwiththe
hypotheticals.
toextremeattentionshiftsandinsteadhand,issueat
extremeshowtothatsuchproofBecausenoispresented
hypotheticalswillinfactoccur,thisfallacyhastheformofanappeal
toemotionfallacybyleveragingfear.Ineffecttheargumentathand
isunfairlytaintedbyunsubstantiatedconjecture.
toallowsame-sexcouplesweClosetExample:
Colinassertsthatif
marry,thenthenextthingweknowwe'
llbeallowingpeopletomarry
theirparents,theircarsandevenmonkeys.第六条:
人身攻击
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