新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题.docx
- 文档编号:8887434
- 上传时间:2023-05-15
- 格式:DOCX
- 页数:21
- 大小:26.23KB
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题.docx
《新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题.docx(21页珍藏版)》请在冰点文库上搜索。
新编简明英语语言学教程何兆熊第四章笔记和习题
Chapter4Syntax
Whatissyntax?
----abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgovernthe
formationofsentences.
ThetermsyntaxisfromtheancientGreekwordsyntaxis,whichliterallymeans“arrangement”or
outtogether”.
Traditionally,itreferstothebranchofgrammardealingwiththewaysinwhichwords,withorwithoutappropriateinflections,arearrangedtoshowconnectionsofmeaningwithinthesentence.
Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatanalyzesthestructureofsentences.
Whatisasentence?
Syntaxistheanalysisofsentencestructure.Asentenceisasequenceofwordsarrangedinacertainorderinaccordancewithgrammaticalrules.
Asequencecanbeeitherwell-formedorill-formed.Nativespeakersofalanguageknowintuitivelywhatstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhatareungrammatical.
Knowledgeofsentencestructure
Structuralambiguity
Structuralambiguityisoneormorestring(s)ofwordshas/havemorethanonemeaning.Forexample,thesentenceTomsaidhewouldcomeyesterdaycanbeinterpretedindifferentways.
Wordorder
Differentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings.Forexample,withthewordsTom,loveandMary,wemaysayTomlovesMaryorMarylovesTom.
Grammaticalrelations
Nativespeakersknowwhatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly.Forexample,inTheboatsarenotbigenoughandWedon’thaveenoughboats,thewordenoughisrelatedtodifferentwordsinthetwosentences.
Recursion
Thesamerulecanbeusedrepeatedlytocreateinfinitesentences.Forexample,Iknowthatyouarehappy.HeknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.SheknowsthatheknowsthatIknowthatyouarehappy.
Sentencerelatedness
Sentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated.
Syntacticcategories
Asyntacticcategoryisaclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:
Thechildfoundtheknife.
Apolicemanfoundtheknife.
Themanwhojustleftherefoundtheknife.
Hefoundtheknife.
Alltheitalicizedpartsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategorycallednounphrase(NP).ThenounphrasesinthesesentencesfunctionassubjectThe.knife,alsoanounphrase,functionsasobject.
Traditionalgrammar
Intraditionalgrammar,asentenceisconsideredasequenceofwordswhichareclassifiedintopartsofspeech.
Sentencesareanalyzedintermsofgrammaticalfunctionsofwords:
subjects,objects,verbs
(predicates),predicatives,⋯
Structuralgrammar
Structuralgrammararoseoutofanattempttodeviatefromtraditionalgrammar.Itdealswiththeinter-relationshipsofdifferentgrammaticalunits.Intheconcernofstructuralgrammar,wordsarenotjustindependentgrammaticalunits,butareinter-relatedtooneanother.
Transformational-generative(TG)grammar
Chomsky(1957)–grammaristheknowledgeofnativespeakers.
1
Adequacyofobservation
Adequacyofdescription
Adequacyofexplanation
WritingaTGgrammarmeansworkingouttwosetsofrules–phrasestructurerulesandtransformationrules–whicharefollowedbyspeakersofthelanguage.
TGgrammarmustaccountforallandonlygrammaticalsentences.
TGgrammaraccountsforthementalprocessofourspeaking.
Systematic-functionalgrammar
Backgroundandthegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammarM.A.K.Halliday
Languageisasystemofmeaningpotentialandanetworkofmeaningaschoices.
Meaningdeterminesform,notviceversa.Meaningisrealizedthroughforms.
Thegoalofsystemic-functionalgrammaristoseehowfunctionandmeaningarerealizedthroughforms.
Thethreemeta-functionsoflanguage
Ideationalfunction
Interpersonalfunction
Textualfunction
Categories
Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)
Word-levelcategories
Majorlexicalcategories:
N,V,Adj,Prep.
MinorLexicalcategories:
Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.
Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined
Meaning
Inflection
Distribution
Note:
Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.
Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures
Phrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrase
categories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).
Thestructure:
specifier+head+complement
Head----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed
Specifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads
Complement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads
Phrasestructurerules
Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:
NP
(Det)+N+(PP)
⋯⋯e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.
VP
(Qual)+V+(NP)
⋯⋯e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.
AP
(Deg)+A+(PP)
⋯⋯veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,verycloseto
PP(Deg)+P+(NP)
⋯⋯ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.
TheXPrule
Note:
ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.
2
Coordinationrule
Coordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametype
withthehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.
----Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:
nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;
thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.
Phraseelements
Specifier
Head
Complement
Specifiers
----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.
Complements
----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhose
existenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbeno
complement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put⋯;a
sentencelike-constructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasinIbelievedthatshe“wasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.
Modifiers
----Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.
Sentences(theSrule)
SNPVP
SNPinflVP
Manylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstract
categoryinflection(dubbed‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatestensehesentenceandagreement.’
Inflrealizedbyatenselabel
Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary
Transformations
Auxiliarymovement(inversion)
Doinsertion
Deepstructure&surfacestructure
Wh-movement
Moveαandconstraintsontransformations
Auxiliarymovement(inversion)
InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.
Inversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.
Auxiliarymovement(inversion)
Doinsertion
Doinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.
Deepstructure&surfacestructure
Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:
3
Johniseasytoplease.
Johniseagertoplease.
Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.
Consideronemoresentence:
Flyingplanescanbedangerous.
ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.
Deepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’sub-categorizationproperties;it
containsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.
Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriate
transformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.
D-structureandS-structure
Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:
Onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace
Theotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace
Formallinguisticexploration:
D-structure:
phrasestructurerules+lexicon
SentenceatthelevelofD-structure
Theapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefrom
D-structureleveltoS-structurelevel
Transformational-generativelineofanalysis
Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponent
Wh-movement
Considerthederivationofthefollowingsentences:
Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?
Whatcanyoutalkabout?
Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:
Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.
Youcantalkaboutwhat.
Wh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.
Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?
Whatcanyoutalkabout?
Wh-movement----MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)
Moveαandconstraintsontransformations
InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.
Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.
Chapter4:
Syntax
I.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:
1.Syntaxisasubfiedoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage,includingthecombinationofmorphemesintowords.
4
2.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntact
- 配套讲稿:
如PPT文件的首页显示word图标,表示该PPT已包含配套word讲稿。双击word图标可打开word文档。
- 特殊限制:
部分文档作品中含有的国旗、国徽等图片,仅作为作品整体效果示例展示,禁止商用。设计者仅对作品中独创性部分享有著作权。
- 关 键 词:
- 新编 简明 英语 语言学 教程 第四 笔记 习题
![提示](https://static.bingdoc.com/images/bang_tan.gif)