Assessing reading阅读笔记.docx
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Assessing reading阅读笔记.docx
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Assessingreading阅读笔记
Assessingreading阅读笔记
1.Preface:
Readingalsoplaysacriticalroleinappliedlinguisticsresearchandintheday-to-dayprofessionallifeofthelanguageteacher.
Assessmenttechniques:
readingaloud,impressionisticjudgement,miscueanalysis,andself-assessment.
2.Thenatureofreading
Thenumberofdifferenttheoriesofreading:
whatitis;howitisacquiredandtaught,howreadingrelatestoothercognitiveandperceptualabilities,howitinterfaceswithmemory.
Constructofreading
Processandproduct:
theprocessiswhatwemeanby‘reading’proper:
theinteractionbetweenareaderandthetext.
Researchhasfocusedonexaminingtheeyemovementsofreaders,andinterestinginsightshavebeengainedfromeyemovementphotography.
Levelsofunderstanding:
reading‘thelines’,reading‘betweenthelines’,andreading‘beyondthelines’.Thefirstreferstotheliteralmeaningoftext,thesecondtoinferredmeanings,andthethirdtoreaders’criticalevaluationsoftext.
Beabletoread:
Davis(1968)defineseightskills:
1.Recallingwordmeanings;2.Drawinginferencesaboutthemeaningofawordincontext;3.Findinganswerstoquestionsansweredexplicitlyorinparaphrase;4.Weavingtogetherideasinthecontent;5.Drawinginferencesfromthecontent;6.Recognizingawriter’spurpose,attitude,toneandmood;7.Identifyingawriter’stechnique;8.Followingthestructureofapassage.
Readingisessentiallydividedintotwocomponents:
decoding(wordrecognition)andcomprehension.
Readinginvolvesperceivingthewrittenformoflanguage,eithervisuallyorkinaesthetically.
Top-downandbottom-upprocessing:
Bottom-upapproachesareserialmodels,wherethereaderbeginswiththeprintedword,recognizesgraphicstimuli,decodesthemtosound,recognizeswordsanddecodesmeanings.
Top-downapproachesemphasizetheimportanceofschemata.Goodman(1982),forexample,callsreadinga‘psycholinguisticguessinggame’,inwhichreadersguessorpredictthetext’smeaningonthebasisofminimaltextualinformation,andmaximumuseofexisting,activated,knowledge.
Goodman’scharacterizationofthereadingprocessasoneofsampling,predicting,conformingandcorrectingmightdescribeamoregeneralprocessthanthatofreading.
Readingrepresentproblem-solving,
First-languagereadingandsecond-languagereading:
readingabilitiesareassumedtotransferacrosslanguage,improvingsecond-languagereadingwillleadtoimprovingreadinginthefirstlanguagealso.Oncereadingabilityhasbeenacquiredinthefirstlanguage,itisavailableforuseinthesecondorsubsequentlanguagealso.
Readingassocioculturalpractice:
Implicationfortestdesign:
content-centred;individualinstruction;silentreading;pre-,during-andafter-readingtasks;specificskillsandstrategies;groupworkandcooperativelearning;readextensively.
3.Variablesthataffectthenatureofreading
Ithasbecomecommonpracticetodivideresearchintofactorsthataffectreadingintothetwomainconstellationsofvariablesthataretypicallyinvestigated.Thefirstfactorswithinreader:
aspectsofthepersondoingthereadingthathavebeenthoughtorshowntohaveaneffectonthereadingprocessandtheproductofreading.Thesecondmajorsectionwilllookatthoseaspectsofthetexttobereadthatareofsignificance.
Readervariables:
researchhaslookedatthewayreadersthemselvesaffectthereadingprocessandproduct,andhasinvestigatedanumberofdifferentvariables.
Thereader’sknowledge,motivation,andthewaythisinteractswiththereasonswhyareaderisreadingatextatall.Thestrategiesthereadersuse;relativelystablecharacteristics:
sex,age,andpersonality;physicalcharacteristics:
eyemovement,speedofwordrecognition,automaticityofprocessing.
Insecond-andforeignlanguagereadingstudies,therewasanearlyemphasisontheimportanceofsyntacticaswellaslexicalknowledge,andonlyrecentlyhasrhetoricalknowledgeandmetalinguisticknowledgebeenstudiedinanydepth.
Berman(1984)suggestthattheabilitytoprocesscomplexsyntaxmaybemoreimportantfortheunderstandingofdetailedinformationinsentencesthanfortheunderstandingofthegistofatext.
Knowledgeofsubjectmatter,knowledgeoftheworld,culturalknowledge
Knowledgeofsubjectmatter:
AldersonandUrquhart(1985)wereabletoshowthatreadingtestsontextsinsubjectdisciplinesthatstudentswerestudyingorhadstudiedweresometimeseasiertoprocessthanthosewhichwerenot,butnotalways.
Readerskillsandabilities:
Alderson(2000:
49)concludes:
’Answeringatestquestionislikelytoinvolveavarietyofinterrelatedskills,ratherthanoneskillonlyorevenmainly.’
Compensationhypothesis:
oneofthecausesofthevariationwehavenotedinreadsandreadingmightbethatreadershavedifferentamountsofknowledgerelevanttothetextinhand,asdiscussedabove.Suchdifferencesmightresultinsomereadershavingtocalluponcertainskills.However,lackofknowledgeorskillinoneareamightbecompensatedbyabilitiesorknowledgeinotherareas.
Readerpurposeinreading:
Readermotivation/interest:
studiesofpoorfirstandsecond-languagereadershaveconsistentlyshownthatpoorreaders(Coper’s1984‘unpractised’readers)lackmotivationtoreadortospendtimeimprovingtheirabilitytoread.
Readeraffect:
theemotionalstateofthereader;anxiety;
Emotionalresponsesinreadingliteraturehavelongbeenthesubjectofresearch,atleastforfirst-languagereaders.
Beginningreadersandfluentreaders:
self-regulationstrategies
Textvariables:
thesefactorsrangefromaspectsoftextcontent,totexttypesorgenres,textorganization,sentencestructure,lexis,texttypography,layout,therelationshipbetweenverbalandnon-verbaltext,andthemediuminwhichthetextispresented.
Texttopicandcontent:
itiscommonlyassumedthattextcontentwillaffecthowreadersprocesstext.
Textslocatedinfamiliarsettings,oneverydaytopics,arelikelytobeeasiertoprocessthanthosethatarenot.
Goodtestsofreadingandgoodassessmentproceduresingeneralwillensurethatreadershavebeenassessedfortheirabilitytounderstandtextsinarangeofdifferenttopics.
Texttypeandgenre:
textvariablesonlyhaveacrucialrolewhenmaterialsareconceptuallymoredifficultorunfamiliarandwhenreadersarerelativelylessable.(Alderson,2000:
65)
Textorganization:
Meyer(1975)suggeststhattheorganizationoftextsmaymakesometextseasiertofollowandmorememorablethanothers.
Textthatiscoherentismucheasiertocomprehendthenlesscoherenttext.
Traditionallinguisticvariables:
Schlesinger(1968)suggeststhatsyntaxwasnotasignificantfactor.
Syntacticanddiscoursedifferencesmighthaveaneffectonwordidentification.
Vocabularydifficultyhasconsistentlybeenshowntohaveaneffectonunderstandingforfirst-languagereadersaswellasforsecond-languagereaders(forexample,FreebodyandAnderson,1983).
Ithasbeenshown,however,thattopic(un)familiaritycannotbecompensatedforbyeasyvocabulary:
bothdifficultvocabularyandlowfamiliarityreducecomprehension,buttextswithdifficultvocabularydonotbecomeeasierifmorefamiliartopicsareused,andviceversa.
Contextisoftenheldtoinfluencetextcomprehension.
Textreadability:
researchershavelongbeenconcernedtoidentifywhatfeaturesmaketextreadable,inordertoadjusttextdifficultytotheintendedreadership.Thishasbeenespeciallyimportantineducationalcontexts.Manyattemptshavebeenmadetodevelopformulae,orothersimpleprocedures,whichcouldbeusedtoestimatetextreadability,baseduponempiricalresearchintodifficulty.
Sincesyntaxandlexiscancauseproblemsintexts,aswehaveseenintheprevioussection,estimatesofthesyntacticcomplexityandlexicaldensityoftextarecommonlyused.However,itisclearlynotverypracticaltohavetoanalyzestextsforsuchfeatures,andsoindiceshavebeendevelopedtoallowroughestimates.
OnewayofestimatinglexicalloadistocheckhowmanywordsinasampleofthetargettextappearinawordfrequencylistliketheThorndikeandLorgelist(1994),theWestlist(1953).
AnotherfrequentlyusedreadabilityformulaistheFlesch,firstusedin1948andstillinusetoday.Theformulaproducesareading-easescore:
RE=206.835-(0.846*NSYLL)-(1.015*W/S)
WhereNSYLListheaveragenumberofsyllablesper100wordsandW/Sistheaveragenumberofwordspersentence(Davies,1984:
188).
Ithaslongbeenknownthatvocabularyloadisthemostsignificantpredictoroftextdifficulty.
However,readabilityformulaegiveonlycrudemeasuresoftextdifficulty,andarerarelysuitableforsecond-orforeign-languagereaders,evenofEnglishtexts.
Giventherangeofvariablesthataffecttextdifficulty-topic,syntacticcomplexity,cohesion,coherence,vocabularyandreadability-languagetestersshouldbewareasimplisticapproachtolanguagedifficultywhenselectingtexts.
Typographicalfeatures:
thelayoutofprintonthepageisconsideredespeciallyimportantforbeginningreaders.
Verbalandnon-verbalinformation:
Themediumoftextpresentation:
readingfrompaperisgenerallyfaster,moreaccurateandlessfatiguing.
Readers:
aspectsofreadersthataffectboththeprocessandproductofreadingincludethereaders’backgroundandsubject/topicknowledge,theirculturalknowledgeandtheirknowledgeinwhichthetargettextsarewritten.Thelinguisticknowledge;themetalinguisticknowledge.
Thereader’sabilitytoprocessprintedinformationisclearlyalsocrucial,andindeedmightbesaidtobethemainobjectofanyassessmentprocedureortest.
Linguisticfeaturesoftextclearlyaf
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