中国制鞋业和温州模式:世界主要生产和出口鞋商的观点外文翻译Word文件下载.docx
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中国制鞋业和温州模式:世界主要生产和出口鞋商的观点外文翻译Word文件下载.docx
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China’sShoeManufacturingandtheWenzhouModel:
PerspectivesontheWorld’sLeadingProducerandExporterofFootwear
MaterialSource:
JournalEurasianGeographyandEconomicsAuthor:
Y.H.DennisWei
INTRODUCTION
Theglobalmapofindustrialproductionisinastateofnearlyunprecedentedflux,reflectingChina’sspectacularriseandsuccessinbecomingadominantplayerintheworldeconomicarena.Althoughstillidentifiedwithcommunistideology,thecountry’smostdramaticgrowthinoutputhasoccurredinexportableconsumergoodssuchasclothingandfootwear.
ExportsfromChinahavefloodedglobalmarkets,sothatthecountryhasbynow
earnedthewell-deservedreputationasthe“world’sfactory.”In2008,itsGDPbecametheworld’sthird-largest,surpassingthat
ofGermanyandchallengingtheleadingpositionoftheUnitedStates.
HowhasChinaachieveditsremarkableriseinproduction,andwhatroleshaveitsindustriesandregionsplayedintheprocess?
Thecountry’sfootwearindustryrepresentsaclearexampleofChina’sriseinmanufacturing,andthusprovidessomerevealinganswerstothatquestion.ThelimitedWesternliteraturepositsthatChina’sfootwearfactoriesareconcentratedintheexport-orientedPearlRiverDeltaPRD,wheregrowthisdrivenbyforeigninvestmentandexternalproductionunderablueprintfordevelopmentpopularlyknownasthePRDmodele.g.,seeScott,2006.Butwhilethispicturereflectsthesituationintheearly1990s,itneedstobeupdated,iffornootherreasonthatseveralmajorcentersoffootwearproductionincludingQuanzhouFujianProvince,ChengduSichuan,andChongqingandWenzhouZhejiangalsohavebynowbeenestablishedinChina.
ThispaperattemptstoexpandourknowledgeofindustrialandregionaldevelopmentbypresentingastudyoffootwearindustryintheWenzhouMunicipality,whichcouldbecalledChina’s“capitaloflocalcapitalism.”ThemunicipalityisknownfortheWenzhoumodelofindustrialdistrictsandregionaldevelopment,basedonbottom-updevelopmentoffamily-ownedsmallbusinessenterprisesembeddedindenselocalinstitutions.
Wenzhou’s districts resemble those of the Marshallian
industrialdistrictsMIDsmorefrequentlystudiedandcitedintheliteratureseeA.P.L.Liu,1992;
Y.L.Liu,1992;
Parris,1993;
MaandCui,2002;
Sonobeetal.,2004;
YeandWei,2005;
Walcott,2007;
Weietal.,2007;
Huangetal.,2008.Theresemblance,however,tendstofadesincethelate1980s,afterWenzhou’sfamilyenterpriseshaveundergonetwomajorroundsofinstitutionalchangeandfacedseveralstrategicchoices,inconjunctionwiththeemergenceofmultiregionalenterprisesMREs.
Inthispaper,IwillattempttointerpretthedevelopmentandrestructuringofWenzhou’sfootwearindustryinanefforttoprovideaclearerpictureinthecontextofChina’sregionaldevelopmentmodelse.g.,PRD,Sunan,andWenzhou.Insodoing,IchallengeboththeNewRegionalismliteraturethatfocusesonsmallfirmsandlocalassets, as well as perspectives that place undue emphasis onintegrationwithglobalnetworksandexogenousfactorsofdevelopment.IwillarguethatneitherapproachprovidesadequateexplanationsofregionaldevelopmentinChina.
THERESEARCHSETTING
MyresearchactivitiesfocusedontheMunicipalityofWenzhouinsouthernZhejiangProvince;
Fig.1,whichcoversanareaof11,784km2.Inhabitedbyanestimated7.9millionpeoplein2008,ithadaconcentrationof1.42millioninitsurbandistrictWSB,2008.The
districtWenzhouCityformedthetraditionaleconomiccoreofthemunicipality,whichinaggregateaccountedfor81.5percentofitsgrossregionalproductibid..
MyresearchonWenzhouwasinitiatedinthelate1990s,andfrom2003to2005
involvedsurveysandpersonalinterviewswithlocalcompaniesandgovernmentofficials.Withrenewedfunding,webegananotherroundofextensivefieldresearchinAugust2008inWenzhouincollaborationwithlocalresearchersaffiliatedwiththeWenzhouInstituteofEconomicConstructionandPlanningandagroupoffacultyandstudentsfromtheDepartmentofUrbanandRegionalEconomicsatEastChinaNormalUniversity.Ourteamincludedmorethan40researchersandstudentsfromWenzhouaswellasfromothercities.TogetherweinterviewedalmostallbusinessassociationsinWenzhouN20aswellasmorethan100firmsrecommendedbytheseassociationsandrepresentingdifferentsectorsandenterprisesizes;
manyareamongthemostinfluentialenterprisesintheregion.Withregardtoitsfootwearindustry,weinterviewedthetworelevantbusinessassociationsand15typicalcompanies,providingarepresentativesampleoftheentireshoemanufacturingclusterandproductionprocess.Interviews,averaging1.5hours,wereconductedwithbusinessowners,generalmanagers,andotherhigh-levelfunctionaries
inchargeofproduction,investment,andpublicrelationsoftheshoe-makingfirms.BecauseourstudyofWenzhouisdeeplyintertwinedwiththeremakingoftheWenzhoumodel,Iwillnowbrieflyoutlinehowthatmodelhaschangedasaconsequenceofinstitutional
restructuring.
INSTITUTIONALRESTRUCTURINGANDREMAKINGOFTHEWENZHOUMODEL
TheessenceoftheWenzhoumodelisasystemofproductioncenteredonfamilyenterprisesandembeddedinthick,historicallyrootedlocalinstitutions.Familiestypicallyformthemainproductionunits,relyingonsocialnetworksandsalesagentsintegratedwithinlocalmarketsforproductionfactorsandflexiblemarketing.Broadlyspeaking,WenzhouhastendedtobeaheadofthereformcurveY.L.Liu,1992;
inthemid-1980s,whenChinawasstilldominatedbystate-ownedenterprisesSOEs,familybusinessunits,manywith“redhats”fakecollectiveownership,hadbecomethebackboneofWenzhou’seconomy.17ShoesfromWenzhoubegantopenetratethemarketsofChinesecities,whichwerethenstilldominatedbySOEsandstrugglingtocopewiththedeprivationsofashortageeconomy.Nonetheless,theunfetteredcapitalismandprotectionaffordedlocalfirmsbytheWenzhougovernmentmadethe“madeinWenzhou”labelsynonymouswithinferiorquality.Wenzhou
shoeshadthereputationoflastingonlyforoneweek“weekshoes”orevenoneday“dawn?
eveningshoes”.In1987,themunicipalgovernmentinHangzhou,capitalof
ZhejiangProvinceandoneofthemajormarketsfortheshoesconfiscatedandburnedthousandsofpairs.Bythattime,theinherentproblemsoftheoriginalWenzhoumodelhadbecomeserious,andlocalbusinessleadersandgovernmentspushedforchange.
TheWenzhoumodelunderwenttworoundsofinstitutionalrestructuring.Thefirst,launchedinthemid-1980s,wasabottom-upprocessinitiatedbylocalbusinesspeopleandsupportedbythelocalgovernment.Itcenteredonestablishingshareholdingcooperativesasaresponsetotheneedstoclarifypropertyrightsandimprovescaleeconomies,andtransformedmanyfamilyenterprisesintocooperativeventures.By1997,36,000cooperativeenterprisesexistedinWenzhou,withagrossoutputof90billionyuancomprising70percentofthemunicipality’stotalEditorialCommittee,2008,p.206.Thesefirmspossessedclearerpropertyrightsandbecamebetterorganized.ButintandemwithwiththebroadeningofreformsinChinaasawhole,Wenzhoufirmsbegantofaceintensecompetitionfromforeigninvestedenterpriseswithbetterequipmentandhigherqualityproducts,aswellasfromprivateenterprisesthathadimprovedtheircompetitiveness.Anddespitetheshiftofsomefirmstocooperative
formsofownership,mostenterprisesinWenzhoustillwerelockedintheorthodoxWenzhoumodel,beingsmallinsizeandproducinglow-qualitymerchandise.Thesecondroundofrestructuring,initiatedinthe mid-1990s, was devoted to quality and focused on thetransformation from shareholding cooperatives to shareholdingenterprisesandlimited-liabilitycorporations.Itresultedintheemergence of multi-regional enterprises,or de-localized “region-less” groups/conglomerates. This round of restructuring was inessencea“high-road”strategybasedonefficiency,competitiveness,andinnovation,withmorelocalstateinvolvementandintegrationwiththeglobaleconomy.Bothbusinessesand
thelocalstatelaunchedcampaignstoenhancethequalityofproducts.Specificlocalgovernmentpoliciesincludedfinancialsupportandbankloanstostimulatefirmgrowth,allocationoflandtolargefirmswithlargesizeandrecognizedpotential,humanresourcedevelopmentespeciallyworkertraining,importandexportsubsidies,andimprovementsinurbaninfrastructure.Asaresultofthesetworoundsofrestructuring,Wenzhou’sindustryhasbeenupgraded,diversified,andexpandedinspatialterms;
someobserversnowrefertoa“new”Wenzhoumodel.WenzhouhascontinuedtoriseintheChineseeconomy,withitsfootwearindustrybeingoneofthemostrepresentativesectors.Thus,whiletracesoftheorthodox
Wenzhoumodelcanstillbeobserved,afundamentallynewtypeofindustrialdistricthasbegantoemerge.
THENEWINDUSTRIALDISTRICTMODEL
SimilaritieswiththeTraditionalModel
Inthepast,whentheindustrialdistrictfunctionedundertheorthodoxWenzhoumodel,itinmanywaysresembledaclassicalMID?
aterritorialagglomerationofsmallfirmsembeddedinthicklocalinstitutions.19First,Wenzhouhasproducedfootwearforover500years,includingshoesexplicitlyfortheroyalfamilyduringtheMingDynasty.In1978,whenChinahadjustcommencedeconomicreforms,Wenzhoualreadyhad19footwearfactoriesproducing500,000pairsofshoesannuallyHuangetal.,2008.ByAugust2008,thenumberofsuchfactories had climbed to about 2,700 over 4,000 if informal,individualfactoriesareincluded,
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