四级阅读.docx
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四级阅读.docx
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四级阅读
2012年12月英语四级阅读练习
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TheUniversityofCaliforniawascharteredin1868andestablishedatBerkeleyin1875.SouthHall,anivy-coveredGothic-revivalbuildingofredbrick,istheonlysurvivorofthenineteenthcenturycampusbuildings.Today,theBerkeleycampusistheseniormemberofthenine-campusUniversityofCaliforniaSystem.Berkeleyoffersafullrangeofacademicmajorsinprograms.Inanationalsurveypublishedinfall1992,Berkeleyplacedhighestofallpublicuniversitiesinrankingthatincludedfiveattributes:
reputation,selectivity,facultyresources,financialresources,andstudentsatisfaction.Morestudentswhoearnbachelor'sdegreesatBerkeleycompletePh.D'sthangraduatesofanyotheruniversityinthecountry.
Undergraduatestudentscanchoosefrommorethan5,000differentcoursesandover100majorsortheycandesigntheirownindividualmajors.Thegraduatedivisionoffersprofessionalandacademicdegreesinmorethan100majors.Aidingstudentsintheircourseworkisacampusnetworkoftwenty-fourlibraries,includingoneespeciallyforundergraduates.Therearealsomanysupportfacilitiesandservicesavailable,suchastheStudentLearningCenter,financialaidcounseling,housingassistance,graduateandprofessionalschooladvising,andcareerplacementassistance.The1,200-acrecampusstretchesfromdowntownBerkeleythroughwoodedhillsthatoverlookSanFranciscoBay.ThecityofBerkeley(population105,000)offersthelivelybackgroundofoneofAmerica'smoreculturallydiverseandpoliticallyadventuroussmallcities.ThesurroundingSanFranciscoBayareaprovidesanabundanceofrecreationalandculturalevents.
26.InParagraphOne,theauthormainlystatesabout______.
A.thegreatnessandwonderfulnessoftheBerkeleycampus
B.theBerkeleycampus'rankinginallthepublicuniversities
C.thehistoryandthepresentsituationoftheBerkeleycampus
D.theoverallimpressionoftheBerkeleycampus
27.MorestudentshavegraduatedfromBerkeleythanfromanyotheruniversityingaining______degree.
A.MBA'sB.bachelor's
C.Ph.D'sD.master's 28.Fromtheessay,wecanknowthat______.
A.theBerkeleycampusistheUniversityofCalifornia
B.theBerkeleycampusisonlyanoldbranchoftheUniversityofCalifornia
C.theBerkeleycampusisanabsolutelyindependentuniversity,whichisbuiltinCalifornia
D.theBerkeleycampusisanindependentcollege.
29.WhichisTRUEaccordingtotheessay?
A.NowtheBerkeleycampusisthebestpublicuniversity.
B.Youcanfinishbachelor'scoursesorPh.D'scoursesbutnotmaster'scourses.
C.TheBerkeleycampusdoesnotdowellinhelpingstudentsintheirstudies.
D.TheBerkeleycampusisnotfarawayfromthecityofSanFrancisco.
30.ThecityofBerkeleyis______.
A.situatedwithintheBerkeleycampus
B.foundtobeameltingpotofvariouscultures
C.arecreationalplace
D.tryingtoincreaseitspopulation
26.C27.C28.B29.D30.B
TheLawsofNature
Thephrase"AlawofNature"isprobablyrarerinmodernscientificwritingthanwasthecasesomegenerationsago.Thisispartlyduetoaverynaturalobjectiontotheuseoftheword"law"intwodifferentsenses.Humansocietieshavelaws.Inprimitivesocietiesthereisnodistinctionbetweenlawandcustom.Somethingsaredone,othersarenot.Thisisregardedaspartofthenatureofthings,andgenerallyasanunalterablefact.Ifcustomschange,thechangeistooslowtobeobserved.Lateronkingsandprophetscouldpromulgatenewlaws,buttherewasnowayofrevokingoldones.TheGreekdemocraciesmadethegreatandrevolutionarydiscoverythatacommunitycouldconsciouslymakenewlawsandrepealoldones.Soforusahumanlawissomethingwhichisvalidonlyoveracertainnumberofpeopleforacertainperiodoftime.
LawsofNature,however,arenotcommandsbutstatementsoffacts.Theuseofthesamewordisunfortunate.ItwouldbebettertospeakofuniformitiesofNature.Thiswoulddoawaywiththeelementaryfallacythatalawimpliesalaw-giver.Incidentally,itmightjustaswellimplyaparliamentorsovietofatoms.Butthedifferencebetweenthetwousesofthewordisfundamental.IfapieceofmatterdoesnotobeyalawofNatureitisnotpunished.Onthecontrary,wesaythatthelawhasbeenincorrectlystated,ItisquiteprobablethateverylawofNaturesofarstatedhasbeenstatedincorrectly.Certainlymanyofthemhave.Nevertheless,theseinaccuratelystatedlawsareofimmensepracticalandtheoreticalvalue.
Theyfallintotwoclasses-qualitativelawssuchas"Allanimalswithfeathershavebeaks",andquantitativelawssuchas"Mercuryhas13,596timesthedensityofwater"(at0°Cand1atmosphere'spressure).Thefirstoftheseisaverygoodguide.Butitwasprobablynottrueinthepast.Formanybirdswhichwerecertainlyfeatheredhadteethandmaynothavehadbeaks.Anditisquitepossiblynottoday.Thereareaboutahundredthousandmillionbirdsonourplanet,anditmaywellbethattwoorthreeofthemarefreakswhichhavenotdevelopedabeak.Buthavelivedlongenoughtogrowfeathers.ItwasthoughttobealawofNaturethatfemalemammals(definedaswarm-bloodedvertebrateswithhair)hadmammaryglands,untilProf.CrewofEdinburghfoundthatmanycongenitallyhairlessfemalemicelackedtheseorgans,thoughtheycouldbearyoungwhichotherfemalescouldthenfoster.
Andquantitativelawsgenerallyturnouttobeinexact.Thuswaterisnothingdefinite.Itisamixtureofatleastsixdifferentsubstances.ForinthemoleculeH20,oneorbothofthehydrogenatomsmaybeeitherlightorheavy,andsomaytheoxygenatom.Similarly,mercuryconsistsofseveraldifferenttypesofatom.Thustheratioofthedensitiesofmercuryandwaterisnotfixed,thoughinthecaseofordinarysamplesthevariationistoosmalltobedetected.Butitcanbedetectedifthewaterhappenstohavebeentakenfromanaccumulatorwhichhasbeenusedforsometime.
InhistheoryofProbability(Oxford,1939)Jefferyshassomethingnewtosayaboutinduction.TwocontradictorytheoriesareinvogueastothelawsofNature.Theolderviewisthattheyareabsolute,thoughofcoursetheymayhavebeeninaccuratelyformulated.Theextremepositivisticview,enunciatedbyVaihinger,isthatwecanonlysaythatphenomenaoccurasifcertainlawsheld.Thereisnosenseinmakinganydefinitestatements,thoughitisconvenienttodoso.
NowJeffreyspointsoutthat,ifanumberofobservationshavebeenfoundtoconformtoalaw,itishighlyprobablethatthenextonewilldosowhetherthelawistrueornot.InJeffrey'swords•"Awell-verifiedhypothesiswillprobablycontinuetoleadtocorrectinferencesevenifitiswrong."
PositivistsandidealistshavemadegreatplaywiththefactthatmanylawsofNature,asformulatedbyscientists,haveturnedouttobeinexact,andallmaydoso.ButthatisabsolutelynoreasonforsayingthattherearenoregularitiesinNaturetowhichourstatementsofnaturallawcorrespond.OnemightaswellsaythatbecausenomapsofEnglandgiveitsshapeexactlyithasnoshape.
WhatisremarkableaboutthelawsofNatureistheaccuracyofsimpleapproximations.Onemightseeahundredthousandmenbeforefindinganexceptiontotherulethatallmenhavetwoears,andthesameistrueformanyofthelawsofphysics.Insomecaseswecanseewhy.Theuniversesisorganizedinaggregates,with,inmanycases,prettywidegapsbetweenthem.Boyle'slawthatthedensityofagasisproportionaltoitspressure,andCharles'lawthatthevolumeisproportionaltothetemperature,wouldbeexactifgasmoleculeswerepointswhichhadnovolumeanddidnotattractoneanother.Theselawsareverynearlytrueforgasesatordinarytemperaturesandpressures,because
themoleculesoccupyonlyasmallpartofthespacecontainingthegas,andarecloseenoughtoattractoneanotheronlyduringaverysmallpartofanyintervaloftime.Similarly,mostofthestarsarefarenoughaparttobetreatedaspointswithoutmucherrorwhenweareconsideringtheirmovements.
Andmostmenmanagetoprotectthemselvesfrominjurysofarasisneededtokeepbothears.Whereastreescannotprotectthemselvesformthelossofbranches.Itisveryraretoseeacompletelyunmutilated,andthereforecompletelyregulartree.Mendel'slaws,accordingtowhichtwotypesoccurinaratioof1:
1insomecasesand3:
1inothers,aretheoreticallytrueiftheprocessesofdivisionofcellnucleiarequiteregular,andifneithertypeisunfitsoastodieoffbeforecountsaremade.Thefirstconditionneverholds,andthesecondprobablyneverdoes.Buttheexceptionstothefirstconditionareveryrare.Inoneparticularcaseacriticaldivisiongoeswrongaboutoneintenthousandtimes.Theeffectofthisona1:
1ratioor3!
1ratiocouldbedetectedonlybycountingseveralhundredmillionplantsoranimals.Differencesinrelativefitnessaremoreimportant.ButevensotheMendelianratiosaresometimesfulfilledwithextremeaccuracy,andaregenerallyagoodroughguide.
Jeffreyspointsoutthatinsuchcasesitisoftenmuchbettertosticktothetheoreticallawratherthantheobserveddata.Forexample,ifyouarebreedingsilverfoxesandanewcolourvarietyoccurswhich,ifcrossedtothenormal,gives13normaland10ofthenewcolour,youaremuchmorelikelytogetaratioofabout1:
1than13:
10ifyougoonwithsuchmatting,eventhoughifyoubreedmanythousandsthe1:
1ratiowillnotholdexactly.Themathem
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