The Effects of Removal on American Indian Tribes 1.docx
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The Effects of Removal on American Indian Tribes 1.docx
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TheEffectsofRemovalonAmericanIndianTribes1
TheEffectsofRemovalonAmericanIndianTribes
ClaraSueKidwell,UniversityofOklahoma
©NationalHumanitiesCenter
Echohawk/Gilcrease
BrummettEchohawk(Pawneeartist),"TrailofTears,"1957
enlargeimage
TheremovalofAmericanIndiantribesfromlandseastoftheMississippiRivertowhatisnowthestateofOklahomaisoneofthetragicepisodesinAmericanhistory.EarlytreatiessignedbyAmericanagentsandrepresentativesofIndiantribesguaranteedpeaceandtheintegrityofIndianterritories,primarilytoassurethatthelucrativefurtradewouldcontinuewithoutinterruption.Americansettlers'hungerforIndianland,however,ledtoviolentconflictinmanycases,andsucceedingtreatiesgenerallycompelledtribestocedelargeareastotheUnitedStatesgovernment.
Howard
NormaHoward(Choctawartist),"ChoctawVillage,"ca.1998
UGALib.
OrdersforremovalofCherokeefromNorthCarolina,Georgia,TennesseeandAlabama,1838
UGALib.
OrdersforremovalofCherokeefromGeorgia,1838
Tenn.SL&A
NoticetotheCherokeethatsteamboatswillbeavailablefortheirtransportationtoterritorywestoftheMississippi,1838
OnerationaleforthesetreatieswasthatIndiansweremigratoryhunterswhoonlyfollowedthegameandhadnoattachmenttoanyparticularlands.Thisrationaleignoredthefactthattribesinthesoutheastraisedsignificantcropsofcornandlivedinsettledvillages.AmericanswerealreadyswayedbyargumentsbasedonstereotypesofIndiansashostile,savage,wanderingpeople.Forstudents,thequestionistowhatextentthesestereotypesstillpersistintheirthinking.
ThefinalremovalcameundertheIndianRemovalAct.MissionarysocietieswhohadinvestedtheirtimeandmoneyteachingIndianstolivewiththeirwhiteneighborsandacceptChristianitylobbiedCongresstoopposetheact.Itfinallypassed,butonlybyaone-votemargin,inSeptemberof1830.TheChoctaw,Cherokee,Chickasaw,Creeks,andSeminolessignedtreaties
McClungMuseum
DepictionofCherokeefarmsteadofthemid1700s,basedonhistoricdescriptionsandarchaeologicalexcavationsfromtheLowerLittleTennesseeRiverValley,easternTennessee,1967-1982
enlargeimage
agreeingtoleavetheirhomesinthesoutheastandmovewest.Theirtravelsweremarkedbyoutbreaksofcholera,inadequatesupplies,bittercold,anddeathfromstarvationandexhaustion.TheCherokees'marchwasaforcedoneunderthedirectionoftheUnitedStatesarmy,anditcametobeknownasthe"TrailofTears"or,intheirownterm,"ThePlaceWhereTheyCried."Removalwasatragedyasthousandsofpeoplewereforcedtoleavebehindtheirhomes,livestock,crops,andplacesthathadspiritualsignificanceforthem.
Archaeologicalevidence,nativeoraltraditions,andwrittensourceshelpusreconstructthepastandunderstandthewayinwhichlandscapeshapedthecultureandthehistoryofthesepeopleintheiroriginalhomelandsandhowtheyhadtoadapttoanewenvironmentwestoftheMississippiRiver.
TheChoctaw,Chickasaw,Cherokee,Creek,andSeminoletribeslivedoriginallyintheareathatnowencompassesthestatesofMississippi,Alabama,Georgia,Tennessee,andNorthCarolina.Thesegroupsdefinedtheirownidentityinmanyways,butanimportantonewastheirrelationshipwiththelandthattheyconsideredtheirhome.
TheChoctawterritoryinpresent-dayMississippiextendedfromtheMississippiDeltaonthewest,throughrich,blacksoilprairielandsinthenortheast,topineywoodsinthesouthernpartofthestate.ItseasternboundarywasdefinedbythewatershedoftheBlackWarriorRiver,andthePearl,Tombigbee,andChickasawhayRiversdefineditsthreemajordivisions—theOklaFalaya,theOklaTanap,andtheOklaHannali(OklabeingtheChoctawwordfor"people").
TribalregionsbeforeRemoval,ca.1830.Seedescriptionsofthetribalregions.
TheCreekslivedinAlabamaandsouthwesternGeorgia—
the"upper"CreeksalongtheTallapoosaandCoosaRiversandthe"lower"CreeksalongtheChattahoochieRiver.
TheChickasawhomelandwasintheupperMississippiDeltaregioninnorthernMississippi,intowesternTennesseeandnorthernAlabama.
TheCherokeesoccupiedthevalleysofthesouthernAppalachianMountains,establishingvillagesalongtheTennesseeRiveranditstributaries.Theyincludedfivedivisions(asdefinedbytheBritishcolonialgovernmentinthe1700s):
theLowerTownsinnorthGeorgia,theOver-the-Hill(orOverhill)TownsineasternTennessee,andMiddleTowns,ValleyTowns,andOutTownsinwesternNorthCarolina.
TheSeminoles,originallyofLowerCreekidentity,emergedasadistinctivetribalgroupintheearlytomid1700sasaresultofconflictbetweenEuropeancolonistsandtribalvillages.AmajoruprisingbytribesalongtheeastcoastofGeorgia,theYamaseeRebellionof1715,ledtomilitaryactiononthepartoftheBritishthatdestroyednativevillagesanddispossessedtheirpopulations.HomelessgroupsmovedsouthintoSpanishTerritorybelowthe31stparallel(whichbecameFlorida),astheSpanishwerereputedtohavealiberalpolicytowardIndiansandtoleavetheminpeace.TheIndiangroupsthatsettledinwhatisnowFloridaandthesouthernportionsofGeorgia,Alabama,andMississippi,cametobecalledSeminoles,acorruptionoftheSpanishterm"cimmerones"orwanderers.
Eachofthesetribalgroupshaditsownorigintradition.
WinstonCounty
NanihWaiyaIndianmound,Mississippi
TheChoctawsandChickasawssharedacommonorigintradition,thattheyhadlivedwestoftheMississippiRiverandhadmigratedtotheeast.Themigrationwastheresultofthedreamofaholymanthatthesacredpolethatstoodinthecenterofhisvillagewouldleaninthedirectionofthemarch.Itwasledbytwobrothers,ChataandChiksa.DuringthelongjourneyandafterthepeoplecrossedtheMississippi,thebrothersandtheirfollowerswereseparated-bydisagreement,inathunderstorm,theaccountsvary.Chataandhispeoplefollowedthepoleuntilitfinallystooduprightnearahill.ThesitetodayisatNanihWaiya,aflat-toppedmoundabouttwentymilesnorthofPhiladelphia,Mississippi,thetribalheadquartersoftheMississippiBandofChoctawIndians.
GADITT
NorthGeorgiamountains
TheCherokeeorigintraditionexplainstheformationoftheirhomeland—thehillsandvalleysofthesouthernAppalachianMountains,alongtheTennesseeRiveranditstributaries.Whentheearthwascreatedandthelandwasverysoft,birdsweresentdownfromtheskytofindadryplacefortheanimalstolive.Whentheywereunsuccessful,agiantbuzzardwassenttocontinuethesearch.Ashegrewtiredheflewlowerandlower,andhiswingtipsbegantohitthesoftnewland,pushingdownthevalleysandraisingthehills.
TheCreeksoccupiedvillagesalongtheChattahoochie,Tallapoosa,andCoosaRiversinAlabama.Theiroriginsbeganunderamountaininthewest,whichopenedupandthepeopleemergedandsettlednearby.Buttheearthopenedupandatetheirchildren,andtheybeganalongmarchtotheeast,crossingseveralrivers.Theyencounteredthreeotherpeoples,fromwhomtheylearnedtheuseofcertainherbs.Theyalsofoundapoleonamountain,whichbecametheirguide.Theyfinallyencounteredawhitepath,whichtheyfollowedtoCalooseCreek.Theyfoundthepeoplewhohadmadethewhitepathandsettlednearthem.ThestoryexplainsnotonlyhowtheCreekscametothesoutheastbuthowtheycametodominatemostofwhatisnowthestateofAlabamabymakingallianceswithtribalgroupswhosehuntingterritoriestheywanted.TheCreekswereaconfederacyofpeoplesheldtogetherbysimilarityoflanguage.
F.Duncan
EtowahRiver,neartheCoosaRiver,Alabama
Thesefivetribesofthesoutheastwerevillagedwellers.Theyclusteredaroundstreamsandrivers,whichgenerallydefinedterritorialhuntingranges.Theyraisednumerousvarietiesofcorn,beans,andsquashes,buttheirprimarysupplyofmeatcamefromhunting.Deer,bear,andwoodlandbuffaloweretheirprey.
NationalArchives
BankheadNationalForest,Alabama
"Theirenvironmentsshapedtheirsensesofidentity."
Theirenvironmentsshapedtheirsensesofidentity.Thetribesofthesoutheastmaintainedadelicatebalancewiththeforcesoftheenvironmentaroundthem.Thewoodswerefullofspiritualforceswhocouldharmsomeonewhowanderedaloneintotheirdomain.Violentstorms,suddenfloodsintherivervalleys,lightning-setfiresinthewoods,allwereremindersofthepoweroftheworld.TheGreenCornceremony,variationsofwhichoccurredintheCherokee,Creek,andChickasawcommunities,renewedtheworldinthespringfortheupcomingyear.
Duringthelateeighteenthcentury,majorchangesbegantoaffectthelifestylesofthesoutheasternnativepeople.TheintroductionofdomesticatedlivestockamongtheChoctawsinthe1790sprovidedanewsourceoffoodthatbegantoreplacedeermeatinthediet.HuntingdeerforskinstotradewithFrenchandEnglishagentshaddepleteddeerpopulationsthroughoutthesoutheast.Althoughdomesticatedcattleroamedfreeintheforestsandprairies,theycouldbeeasilycaptured.OtherintroductionstotheChoctawdietincludeddomesticatedpigsandpotatoes,andsomefamiliescultivatedfieldsofcotton.Bytheearly1800samissionarycouldreportthatChoctawwomenhadspinningwheels,cards,andwereweavingyardsofcloth.
AlthoughIndianremovalisgenerallyassociatedwiththe1830actofCongress,theprocesswasalreadybeginningbythelate1700s.PressureofwhitesettlementledsmallpartiesofChoctaws,Cherokees,andChickasawstomovewestoftheMississippi,andby1807theyweresettling
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